The development of cities in the 16th century turned these places into centers where new relations, new classes, new demands, new expectations, new political struggles, and new nerves of energy were connected and redistributed.

Especially the bourgeoisie using the money from the trade made the cities the main places of the conflict between old and new the social classes. On the other hand, the bourgeoisie and the emerging urban middle class would be one of the main supporting forces behind the Renaissance and the Reformation. Those who politicized the reformation movement on another level would be the peasants.

Bodin’s preference for the best form of government is monarchy. Bodin bases his preference for monarchy on three basic reasons.
     1. By stating that all-natural laws lead us to monarchy, he claims that monarchy is the most appropriate form of state to nature.
     2. He expresses that the talented people in the country could come into prominence only in the monarchy.
     3. He asserts that the fact that sovereignty that is absolute, indivisible and continuous, can only take place in the form of monarchy

According to Machiavelli, the Italian city states, including Florence, often had instability for that reason and they obviously tended to decline. As a result, they were dominated by external powers such as Spain, France or the Papacy.

According to Machiavelli, violence may be a necessary means in politics, but it is rarely sufficient. The Machiavelist ruler must be both a lion and a fox at the same time: he must know in which case cunning and trick yield better results than directly using violence. Machiavelli often expressed that there is evil in man’s nature. However, this conceptualization of evil is not of religious but of earthly. According to Machiavelli, the instinct that lies at the bottom of human behavior is the instinct of ownership. Because the human greed does not have a limit, individual desires and interests constantly conflict. For him, while some people would like to obtain something, the others are scared of losing what they already have. According to Machiavelli, who has a sense of power with zero sum, the amount of power does not change. An increase in one’s power means a decrease and even destruction in power of the others.

Like Nicola Machiavelli, Spinoza sought to understand relations of political power practically, scientifically, and dispassionately. Like Hobbes, he held that citizens are well-advised to give up their right and power to the state in return for the protection that it can provide to them in their pursuit of selfpreservation. Unlike Hobbes, however, Spinoza emphasized the breadth of the practical limitations on the individual’s concession of power to the state; and also, unlike Hobbes, he located a human being’s highest advantage not in mere continued life and the pursuit of pleasure, but in the achievement of adequate knowledge and its resulting peace of mind.

The correct option is A since these stages are historically the primitive communism, empire, feudalism and capitalism.

The main proponents of the contemporary libertarian idea of justice are Nozick and Hayek. Bentham is a proponent of utilitarian idea of justice. D is the correct answer. 

One of the issues that Luther emphasized was using force. Luther does not mention the state as a union of institutions operated systematically but as a political power (the princes), who uses force in order to maintain the order and its being legitimacy is in the presence of God. Luther, who expresses that the first and the last action of human will is nothing but devotion, states that the only thing to be done is to obey the governors.

Physically disturbing working conditions

Jean Jacques Rousseau: The Social Contract, 1763

Keeping in mind that anarchism is not a homogeneous ideology, there are some notions that Anarchism and Marxism share in common.

These are:

• Both Anarchists and Marxists have their roots in the Industrial Revolution. Both appeared as reactions to the aggravated conditions, and intense oppression during the mid-19th Century. For both, the perfecting of industrialized economics and the reach of their economic organs resulted in an increasing mechanization and quantification of productive activity. Parallel to this development, the whole human life itself and the leisure produced by material progress became an emptiness that is to be filled by mindless distraction and violence (Thomas, 2010, p. 2).
• Both are materialists and believe that people are shaped within the social and economic context of the society they live in.
• They both accept Marx’s theory which suggests that labor creates value and much of this value is seized by capitalists during the production process.
• They both believe that due to their role in the production process, working class has potential to destroy capitalism and create a classless society.
• Both believe that the only way to destroy capitalism is revolution that must be international to be successful. The differences among them are largely related to state and leadership. The main differences may be summarized as following (Heywood 2003; Thomas, 2010): 

Modernity is a process that has been started in the West since the 16th century and it has undergone a radical transformation of political, social and economic institutions. 

Finally, the basic theses of the French Enlightenment had the opportunity to be misled by the French Revolution. Especially in the period when the Jacobins were in power, the basic approach of the Enlightenment was almost embodied. For example, in this process, compulsory, common education policies starting from early ages have been implemented. In this way, attempts have been made to bring a mass that has internalized certain values since childhood. However, the French Enlightenment is often criticized for being a gate to an authoritarian rule. The ruling elite, who have a project to transform society, could take various steps to complete their projects by putting pressure on people if necessary. The French Enlightenment tradition tended to support such authoritarian inclinations provided that they acted in accordance with their own assumptions. 

Machiavelli had two different but interrelated objectives. His personal objective was to return to his active duty in the state. His second objective arose from rejection of the past. According to Machiavelli, the Italian city states, including Florence, often had instability for that reason and they obviously tended to decline. As a result, they were dominated by external powers such as Spain, France or the Papacy. Machiavelli’s second objective was of political: to ensure stability and to free entire Italy from any kind of secular or religious external control.

Peter Townsend

Sen proposes a different analytical framework to assess social justice. This framework is known as the capability approach in the literature. Suggesting that the individuals’ capability, or freedom, should be the basis of assessment regarding justice, Sen provides a promising way to overcome the problem that is related to people’s differentiated social and personal characteristics leading to inequalities in achieving a good life. Sen’s capability approach to justice claims that the primary objective of social arrangements should be based on the expansion of people’s capabilities or their substantive freedoms to achieve valuable beings and doings that they attain value. Focal point of justice in the capability approach is based on that whether a person has a capability to do things or be that s/he has reason to value.

Mercifulness is mentioned in the Roman stoicism.  It is suggested that a monarch should be merciful to his subjects. Otherwise his kingdom might be short.

The correct answer is E. Alienation is defined as the process through which the workers become foreign to their labor, species, and themselves.