Quantitative research, or also called scientific research method, is a way of obtaining information that provides the researcher with accurate and reliable data that is numeric in nature and has been obtained through testing or comparing ideas in the public arena. Quantitative research is based on observation and the measurement of repeated incidences of a political phenomenon. The correct answer is C. 

In a well-developed research design it is important to clearly describe the methods of analysis to be applied to the data in determining whether or not the hypotheses are true or false. The correct answer is C. 

Greene, Caracelli, and Graham (1989) suggest that five major objectives or motivations exist for conducting MMR. The first one is ‘triangulation’, which provides validation and concurrence of results gained from various methods and designs investigating the same circumstance. ‘Complementarity’, as the second motivation, seeks for further detailing, improvement, interpretation and description of the results obtained from one method with results from the other method. The third one is ‘initiation’, which means unearthing the bias, and discrepancies that cause re-designing of the research question. ‘Development’, the fourth motivation, includes utilizing the findings from one method to deliver clues to other method. The last motivation, ‘expansion’, seeks to expand the size of research with different methods for different investigation factors.

Mixed methods research or MMR can be defined as “research designs using qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis techniques in either parallel or sequential phases.” MMR can be stated as “a process of research when researchers integrate quantitative methods of data collection and analysis and qualitative methods of data collection and analysis to understand a research problem.” It corresponds to the “class of research where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, concepts or language into a single study.” As it can be seen from these definitions, the most important element of mixed methods research is using both quantitative and qualitative research methods.

a

While writing the MMR report, the researchers can come across possible four problems. These problems can be explained as follows:

1. The researchers may not be able to balance between quantitative and qualitative paradigm;

2. The researchers may not be able to forecast the readers’ quantitative, qualitative and MMR knowledge;
3. The researchers may not be able to summarize big quantitative and qualitative data set in accordance with journal format; and

4. MMR studies may be rejected by the editors or referees, who adopt only one research paradigm.

Presenting the findings in an integrated manner is not a problem but a choice that the writer has to make. The process of writing the MMR report has similar stages to mono method research reports where you ground your study on a single research paradigm ( either entirely quantitative or entirely qualitative). The researchers firstly give the problem, purpose, importance, and method of the study. However, when it comes to writing findings, the researchers have two choices: presenting the two sets of findings and interpretations in separate sections or by fully integrating them in the same section. Then they end up the report by adding conclusion, discussion and suggestions.

Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) propose a process of MMR including eight specific steps, respectively designating the research question, specifying whether a mixed design is appropriate, choosing the mixed method or mixed model research design, gathering the data, clarifying the data, validating the data, coming to a conclusion and writing the final report.

e

Therefore, Dillman, Smyth, and Christian (2014) underscore that the researcher needs to avoid four types of errors as cornerstones of good quality surveys. • Coverage error, which refers to drawing samples form a list of irrelevant samples to represent the population • Sampling error, which exists any time when the researcher reaches some of the sample and not all members. For instance, instance, to understand the attitudes of political participation of university students the researcher only randomly selects students from one province as the available population rather than the whole country to generalize the findings to the target population; • Nonresponse error, which occurs when some particular units of analysis tend to answer some particular items which are likely to influence the estimate of the findings; • Measurement error is described as the difference between the estimate produced and the true value in case the respondents may answer inaccurately to the survey questions. The correct answer is E. 

Random sampling is a strategy that enables every member in the population to become selected and be a part of the study. Random sampling is essential as it avoids the likelihood to select a biased sample.

There is an increasing interest in utilizing survey research in the field of political sciences as it provides opportunities to build theory through empirical data via understanding the attitudes, behavior, and dynamics in the society (Butt, Widdop, & Winstone, 2016). It has become a common method of collecting descriptive data, and it also enables the social scientist to manipulate data and do more complex analysis to understand the relationship among variables through associational research.

There are many types of surveys that political scientists use. Qualitative surveys are not one of these categories. The correct answer is B. 

Utilitarianism is an ethical perspective that judges actions of researchers according to which they produce most happiness and/or utility for the participants. The correct answer is C. 

C

After deciding that MMR is suitable for the study, the researchers determine their rationale for using a mixed design. Different rationales and their explanation can be found in the table below:

Political sciences, or international relations fields value policy decisions and the changing trends of individuals based on policy making decisions or applications, therefore through a panel study, the researcher can collect data from similar samples at different times. The correct answer is C. 

The goal of the study determines the used research design. The researchers can use the convergent design in order to make people understand the topic more completely or validate the quantitative scales. While the explanatory design is being used to explain quantitative results, the exploratory design is selected to test qualitative exploratory findings. The embedded design is preferred in experimental study for preliminary exploration or follow-up explanation or more complete understanding of the experimental trial. On the other hand, in case of the social injustice, the transformative mixed methods research is conducted to describe the phenomonolgy. Lastly, multiple phase design is implemented to develop, adapt or evaluate program, multilevel statewide studies

The essence of reflexivity in qualitative research is, then, related to “a process of critical reflection both on the kind of knowledge produced from research and how that knowledge is generated”. Because qualitative research is primarily a shared activity of knowledge construction (that is, together the researcher and the participants are engaged in an active process of producing knowledge), it requires the researcher to not only report the “facts” of his/her research, but also actively construct interpretations (e.g., “What do I know?”) while at the same time questioning how the interpretations have been made (e.g., “How do I know what I know?”) as well to request from his/her participants to reflect on their experiences.

In the case the regression line is approaching -1,00 or + 1,00 indicating there is a negative correlation for the former and a positive correlation for the latter. In other words, if it is close to 1 there is a positive correlation between the variables. The correct answer is A. 

Correlational studies enable the researcher to identify how one or a set of variables are related to another or enable the researcher to make predictions. Especially in the case where it is difficult to conduct an experimental study, the researcher can make use of the available data to analyze the relationships among different variables (McNabb, 2004). Correlational research contradicts with experimental research in the sense that no variable is manipulated in this method.