Both UN bodies contribute to standard-setting, norm entrepreneurship, interstate and state-civil society cooperation, and the codification of international law with regard to political, economic, humanitarian, social, and legal issues.

The General Assembly and ECOSOC are based on the one state/one vote principle.

ECOSOC is the principal UN body that is mainly responsible for the UN’s economic and social programs.

The General Assembly has six main committees, two of which deal with economic and social issues. The Second Committee focuses on economic and financial issues and the Third Committee on social, humanitarian, and cultural issues.

• The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA),
• The United Nations Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR),
• The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR),
• The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (ODC),
• The United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States (OHRLLS),
• The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA).

ECOSOC initially had eighteen members. However, especially with the decolonization
movement, new members from the developing world joined ECOSOC. As a result, the number of its members first increased to twenty-seven in 1965 and then to its current number of fifty-four in 1973.

Each member has an equal voting right and, unlike the Security Council, no member has veto power.

ECOSOC has been frequently criticized for their inefficiency, duplication, and fragmentation that caused inefficient use of resources and ultimately a clear lack of organizational goals.

One of the main function of ECOSOC is to coordinate activities among different governmental and non-governmental actors and stakeholders. These actors can include policymakers, parliamentarians, experts, academics, foundations, associations, business interests and nongovernmental organizations. ECOSOC holds issue-based meetings under three main categories:
• High-Level Political Forum (HLPF)
• Annual Ministerial Review (AMR),
• Development Cooperation Forum (DCF).
Along with the General Assembly, ECOSOC also has an authority to call international conferences and make arrangements for consultation with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Global conferences on critical issues such as human rights, the environment, population, and women rights have been some of the most important contributions of ECOSOC. These global conferences particularly provide an important
 orum for civil-society organizations to express their voices in the UN. As of May 2018, there are 4,862 NGOs that enjoy consultative status within the UN system (UN, 2018). This status provides with these NGOs the right to send observers to the meetings of ECOSOC and of its subsidiary bodies.
The consultative status is granted upon the recommendation of ECOSOC Committee on NGOs. The consultation role in ECOSOC is governed by ECOSOC Resolution 1996/31, which delineates the core requirements for consultative status.
All specialized agencies at the UN have their own governing bodies and budgets. At the
intergovernmental level, they interact through ECOSOC. However, under the provisions included in legal agreements that govern the relationship between specialized agencies and the UN, most of the organizations within the system operates independently of the United Nations. In other words, within the UN system, specialized agencies are autonomous organizations created by intergovernmental agreements and treaties. For example, the Bretton Woods institutions, namely the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, and other affiliated organizations such as the World Health Organization, cooperate with other UN bodies on a wide range of global issues in economic, social, cultural, humanitarian, environmental, and related fields. However, specialized agencies are mandated to report either to the General Assembly or to ECOSOC.

The lack of financial sources constitutes one of the weakest aspect of the UN, which mainly results from the inadequate funding of the programs and activities by the member states. The UN budget is mainly financed by the mandatory and voluntary contributions of its member states based on their gross national income (GNI). Various UN programs and funds are financially supported through voluntary contributions. While the IMF and World Bank are mostly self-funding, other specialized agencies are funded partly through assessments and partly through voluntary contributions.

In fact, a small number of countries shoulder the financial burden of the UN. Only 14 states pay 85% of the total membership fees. Due to the principle that the UN should not be overly dependent on any one member, there is a ceiling rate that sets the maximum amount of payment that a single member can make.

Particularly the UN programs and funds remain financially vulnerable, due to their overrelianceon contributions from donor countries. On the one hand, the level of authority and capacity of these institutions are very limited because of their financial dependency. On the other hand, the UN and its affiliated agencies are expected to address a variety of global problems from civil wars to poverty reduction. Although the UN is subject to widespread criticism, its performance largely depends on global conditions and power politics between the major powers and other non-governmental bodies. Unlike national governments, the UN can neither have its own financial resources nor impose any tax. However, because the world has become relatively interdependent and global problems now require global solutions, states are expected to address these challenges and supply resources collectively (Bhargava, 2006).

The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) is a good example of dynamism and endeavor toward renewing institutional and ideational structure.

Human security is defined by the UN General Assembly (Resolution 66/290) as “an approach to assist member states in identifying and addressing widespread and cross-cutting challenges to the survival, livelihood and dignity of their people” (www.un.org)

The UNDP introduced the concept ‘human security’ in its 1994 Human Development Report. Before 1994, the concept of security had been interpreted in a narrow sense
that defined state security from the perspective of external aggression and national interests. The 1994 Report defines security in a broader sense and identifies threats to human security under seven categories: economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security.

“A society of states (or international society) exists when a group of states, conscious of certain common interests and common values, form a society in the sense that they conceive themselves to be bound by a common set of rules in their relations with one another, and share in the working of common institutions” (Watson, 1987).

Mixed-actor model is based on the assumption that global politics is not only shaped by national states but also shaped by a variety of actors, identities, and interests.

The UN Charter describes the four pillars of the UN as follows:

• Peace and Security
• Human Rights
• The Rule of Law
• Development

All these four pillars are interconnected. None of them can be fully achieved without addressing the other three. In this section, we focus on all pillars, except Peace and Security, with an emphasis on social issues at the global scale.

The UN’s notion of human development has shifted from simple economic equality to the equality of opportunity (Heywood, 2014). 

Johan Galtung’s positive peace theory and the notion of structural peace entail the aim of bringing about a more socially just and harmonious global society.

Structural violence occurs when individuals or groups are prevented from realizing their potentials as human beings.

Whereas negative peace simply refers to the absence of direct violence, positive peace requires the absence of structural violence and entails social justice (Galtung, 1964:2).

The Report introduced a new approach to development studies for advancing human well-being. Development was defined as the richness of human life rather than simply the richness of the economy. It is an approach that focuses on individuals and their opportunities and choices. The new approach to development focusses on what individulas are able to do and to be. In this perspective, a healthy-stable national economy is one that enables a person to enjoy a long healthy life, good education, a meaningful job, family life, and the rule of law.

UNCTAD helps negotiate international trade agreements that stabilize prices and promote trade with developing countries. UNCTAD is the United Nations body responsible for dealing with economic and sustainable development issues with a focus on trade, finance, investment, and technology. It helps developing countries to participate equitably in the global economy. UNCTAD also conducts research and analysis in the field of investment for sustainable development. Besides, UNCTAD
• Provides technical assistance to enable beneficiary countries to attract more investment for sustainable development, including through investment policy reviews,
• Encourages responsible investment through initiatives such as the establishment of principles for sustainable development in agriculture,
• Helps least developed countries countries in their efforts to reach the targets they have set for economic progress.

UNESCO is one of the largest UN agencies that was created to increase “dialogue among civilizations, cultures, and peoples,” based on mutual respect, and to contribute toward peace and the eradication of poverty. Article I of its Constitution commits UNESCO to furthering through education, science and culture “universal respect for justice, for the rule of law, and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms.” (www.unesco.org)

“UNESCO is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. It seeks to build peace through international cooperation in Education, the Sciences and Culture. UNESCO’s programmes contribute to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals defined in Agenda 2030, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2015,” (//en.unesco.org/)

Another good example for UN activities in addressing social problems is the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), which has been working to protect the rights of children around the world for more than 70 years. One of its most significant contributions is the improvement in the child labor issues. UNICEF was created in 1946 by the UN General Assembly, to serve children all over the world. Because it is a “Fund,” UNICEF is supported by voluntary contributions from governmental and nongovernmental sources and its own fundraising activities.

The Paris Agreement’s “central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius (www. unfccc.int).

• Regulation of the hours of work including the establishment of a maximum working day and week;
• Regulation of labour supply, prevention of unemployment and provision of an adequate living wage;
• Protection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment;
• Protection of children, young persons, and women;                                                  • Provision for old age and injury, protection of the interests of workers when employed in countries other than their own;
• Recognition of the principle of equal remuneration for work of equal value;
• Recognition of the principle of freedom of association;
• Organization of vocational and technical education, and other measures (www.ilo. org).                                              

WHO is mandated to direct and coordinate authority on international health within the UN system in several ways, including to:
• provide leadership on matters critical to health and engage in partnerships where  joint action is needed,
• shape the research agenda and stimulate the generation, translation, and dissemination of valuable knowledge,
• set norms and standards and promote and monitor their implementation,
• articulate ethical and evidence-based policy options,
• provide technical support, catalyze change, and build sustainable institutional capacity,
• monitore the health situation and assess health trends (http://www.who.int).

The International Organization for Migration (IOM).

The IMF was created for a monetary regime based on the US dollar as the reserve currency. The IBRD aimed the post-war recovery and economic development. Finally, the ITO was envisaged to regulate inter-state trade relations.

In July 1944, representatives of 44 countries came together at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire under the American leadership. The conference sought to build a framework for international economic cooperation in order to avoid a recurrence of the past mistakes that had contributed to the Great Depression of the 1930s. The Allied powers were aware that there was a close association between the global trade structure and the international monetary policy. Memories of the Great Depression were still fresh; it was clear that the competitive and uncoordinated currency devaluations had deteriorated the world trade volume duing the interwar years (Grieco et al., 2015). There was a need for a more stable system of exchange rates.

The interwar years (1919-1938) were characterized by persistent economic volatility,
recessions, banking crises, the Great Depression, and the rise of fascism in Europe. During those years the infamous Smoot-Hawley Tarriff Act in the US (1930) was the most critical act to have distrupted the international economic order. The average tariff rate increased to 59% (the highest since 1830), which led to a chain of retaliatory actions. It thereby caused disruption in international trade and markets, deepened the
Great Depression, and undermined international cooperation.The mistakes of the interwar years taught two important lessons: another depression would be avoided by the creation of a stable global monetary system and a relatively free world trade system. Additionally, there was an immediate need for rebuilding the war-torn areas, especially Europe.

The Bretton Woods institutions relied on a specific economic philosophy, which is known as the “Washington Consensus”. In broad terms, the Washington Consensus recommends that governments should:
• reform their policies,
• pursue macroeconomic stability by controlling inflation and reducing fiscal deficits,
• open their economies to the rest of the world through trade and capital account liberalization,
• liberalize domestic product and factor markets through privatization and deregulation.

Dispute Settlement in the WTO: “Resolving trade disputes is one of the core activities of the WTO. A dispute arises when a member government believes another member
government is violating an agreement or a commitment that it has made in the WTO. The WTO has one of the most active international dispute settlement mechanisms in the world.

The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and other multilateral, bilateral and commercial creditors began the Heavily Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) Initiative in 1996. The structured program was designed to ensure that the poorest countries in the world are not overwhelmed by unmanageable or unsustainable debt burdens. It reduces the debt of countries meeting strict criteria.

Its fundamental objective is to transform the global economy so as to distribute the global benefits more equitably, alleviate grievances of colonization, and create a democratic global order (Gilman, 2015).

The origins of the South-South cooperation can be traced back to the 1950s. The end of the Second World War as well as the process of decolonization provided an impetus for identifying the problems of the world’s underdeveloped regions. These newly
independent countries were neither industrialized nor socialist, and they were struggling to overcome the colonial heritage and weak institutions along with the state incapacities. There was heavy pressure on newly independent countries to take side either with the Western capitalist world or with the socialist camp during the heydays of the Cold War. Many developing countries, especially those emerging from the colonial rule, were also questioning both the international capitalist system and its economic structure. Developing countries came to a general understanding that they would gain more if they act together rather than being allied to a superpower.

The Bandung Conference took place between 18 and 24 April 1955 in Indonesia where the newly independent nations recognized the importance of promoting economic cooperation as a bloc. Twenty-nine countries representing more than half of the world’s population at the time, sent delegates to the Bandung Conference. The Final Communiqué of the Bandung Conference laid out the desire for economic cooperation and growth among developing nations, along with an agreement to provide technical assistance to one another, thus facilitating the exchange of ideas, experts, and specific training.

The Bandung Conference became a turning point in history; it had a profound influence on future international cooperation among “Southern” countries. The pace continued with the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in 1961 and the Group of 77 (G-77) in 1964. Moreover, the UN established the UNCTAD to assist the South in the area of economic and trade policy. At the second UNCTAD conference in 1968, G-77 countries had identified themselves as a political bloc. While the politics of the Group would prove difficult to manage, they undoubtedly formed a voting majority within the General Assembly (Gilman, 2015).

Import substitution industrialization is a “development strategy focusing on promoting domestic production of previously imported goods to foster industrialization” (https://www.britannica.com).

The “fair trade movement” is an excellent example of the alternative perspectives. It is a social movement against the injustices in global trade. The main goal of the fair trade movement is to help producers in developing countries achieve better trading conditions. In effect, the movement offers better deals for the producers in the developing world and better quality for all consumers.

The birth of various new mechanisms such as the BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), the “Belt and Road” initiative, the BRICS New Development Bank (NDB), the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), and the Silk Road Fund can be considered as alternatives to the Bretton Woods institutions.

The Group of 20, also called the G-20, is a new informal global governance body. The G-20 forum replaced the Group of 8 (G-8) as the main global forum for international economic cooperation. The G-20 is composed of members of the former Group of 7 (G- 7) and 12 other nations as well as the European Union. The G-20 was formed in the late 1990s in response to the financial crises. It was designed to serve as a forum for major countries to discuss global economic problems. Its first meeting was held in Berlin in December 1999.

Since the G-20 is an informal forum, its decisions are not binding. The mandate of the G-20 is to promote global economic growth, international trade, and financial market regulation. There are no formal criteria for G-20 membership, and its composition has remained unchanged since its inception in1999.

The G-20 includes the leading economies in the world. These countries together constitute approximately 80 % of the world trade, 85 % of the gross world product, and approximately half of total land area around the world. Members are from all continents, and they make up the two-thirds of the total world population.

(The member countries are specified in Table 6.7 on page 183)