As different from defensive realism, even in the contrary direction, Mearsheimer, in his essay about future of the post-Cold War World, particularly Europe, emphasizes that a transition to a multipolar order from a bipolar one provokes instability. He argues that “the next decades in a Europe without the superpowers would probably not be as violent as the first 45 years of this century but would probably be substantially more prone to violence than the past 45 years” (Mearsheimer, 1993: 43). He affirms partially Waltz’s view by accepting that the anarchic structure compels states to compete for power for security and survival. However, the image of state portrayed by Mearsheimer is greedier and more aggressive than how Waltz pictures it. He claims that states seek hegemony; they all want to become, ultimately, regional hegemons. His theory, as it is called, offensive realism is built upon the assumption that “[G]reat powers… are always searching for opportunities to gain power over their rivals, with hegemony as their final goal” (Mearsheimer, 2001: 29).

1. Globalization and emerging non-state actors
2. Increasing interdependency relations in global politics
3. International relations getting more transnational
4. The increase in the number of actors are the reasons of emergence of non-state centric approaches. The answer is D.
   

The basic feature of positivism as a methodological position and philosophical thought is that science is accepted only as valid scientific knowledge and acts are basic objects to be experimented on. This outlook is based on two important philosophical beliefs: 1) The main source of human knowledge is data (fact) and it is easily observed, 2) Data (or fact) is available only as a result of our senses.

The others are not related to positivism but other approaches.

Realism

Dialectics is a term used to describe a method of philosophical argument that involves some sort of contradictory process between opposing sides. 

Gideon Rose (1998) says, “it [neoclassical realism] explicitly incorporates both external and internal variables, updating and systematizing certain insights drawn from classical realist thought.”

Dependency theories like pluralists are likely to accept the states, international organizations and nonstate actors as important actors. However, their main concern is to understand the uneven development of international economic system and its results. In particular, they focus on the dependency relations between industrialized northern countries (in North America, Europe and
Far East) and underdeveloped poor countries in Asia, Africa and South America.

The international security dilemma establishes that states trying to increase their own security by means of offensive weapons decreases the security of others. As such, despite not being dominant powers on a global or even regional scale, the nuclear programs of Iran and North Korea signify an increasingly significant threat. As such, alliances established in opposition to these programs are reactions as results of a threat imbalance best explained by the balance of threat theory.

In the neorealist perspective, particular international systems can be differentiated as being multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar based on the number of major actors or the distribution capabilities across units (in which neorealism considered states to be units).

Hobson (1858-1940) was an English economist influenced by liberal thinkers, such as John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer. In his classic study, Imperialism: A Study, first published in 1902, he attempts to explain the rise of new imperialism in the 1870s and 1880s when Great Britain, together with the other European powers, engaged in a scramble for colonies.

The "balance of power" is a mechanism that creates the distinction between anarchy and chaos. While nations try to maintain or overthrow the status quo based on their own aspirations, the necessity for a configuration called the balance of power rises, leading to policies that aim at preserving it. The power relationships between states sustain international order, with the power of states being balanced by each other. Since this process is a result of statesmen policies and international relations, it does not appear automatically but emerges from these policies (which may be subject to change) and serves to provide temporary stability and peace at the international level.

Nations are entities that pursue their interests as defined by power and should not be judged by universal moral principles.

One of the pioneers of classical realism, Hans Morgenthau (1997) states six principles of realism that could help us comprehend profoundly the realist vision of international phenomenon. These six principles are:
1. Politics is governed by objective laws that have their roots in human nature.
2. Statesmen conduct themselves in terms of interest defined as power.
3. Interest determines political conduct within the political and cultural context which foreign policy is formulated.
4. Prudence is the supreme virtue in international politics. There can be no political morality without prudence.
5. Nations are entities that pursue their interests as defined by power and should not be judged by universal moral principles. 
6. Political realism rejects the legalistic-moralistic approach to international politics.

The correct answer is E.

Commercial

Functionalism, neo-functionalism, interdependence and transnationalism are all terms drived from the liberal internationalism. Global governance is a theory coined by neoliberal institutionalists. The correct answer is E.

Classical realists state that man is naturally egotistical and has an endless will to gain power. As animus dominandi, he constantly seeks to make others the subject of his domination. Since this state is considered human nature, it is also a result of the state of nature, the pre-civil condition that is an extremely adverse human circumstance in which life is ruled and shaped by a permanent state of war of every man against every man. This constant fear of death has resulted in humans engaging in rational collaborations due to security concerns. As such, human nature lies at the root of politics.

The United States

individual

Studies in the field of International Relations (IR) are taken into account by dividing the discipline into two or three schools. For example:

* “traditional theories, global society theories and neo-Marxist theories”

* “realism, pluralism and globalism”

*  “conservatism, liberalism and radicalism”.

* Machiavellianism, Grotianism and Kantianism

There are some other categorizations which are not mentioned above, such as realist approach, rationalist approach and revolutionary/ cosmopolitan approach.

As it is understood from the classifications and conceptualization, they all set forth the different aspects of the similar approaches. For example, the concepts of traditional classic theories, realism and conservatism are used to explain the basic arguments of the realist approach. Similarly, the theories of global society, pluralism and liberalism can be named under pluralism or liberalism. They can also be named under Kantianism, Grotianism communitarianism, cosmopolitanism and functionalism. The third group, which is classified with neo-Marxist theories, globalism and radicalism can be grouped with the concepts of Third World theories, Neo-Marxist theories, structuralist theories and dependency theories.

There is NO mention of post-modern approach among all these divisions.