There are three sub-theories of Marxism:

I. The theory of alienation,

II. The labor theory of value, and

III. The materialist conception of history.

observations

The correct answer is A.

As the fundamental requirement to other needs, survival and security is the primary goal of any state. In a bipolar arrangement, the constant pressure of such a threat may result in permanent tension that may result in smaller conflicts to prevent larger ones, but a fundamental threat to the very existence of the state is not considered a limiting factor that contributes to stability in a bipolar world.

Economic structuralism, on the other hand, is concerned with the international division of labor created by the capitalist system. It sees that the division of labor is unfair, creating categories of rich and poor people, as well as rich and poor nations, at the macro level. Within the structuralist approach, there are actually two sub-approaches: the Marxist approach, which rejects capitalism completely, and the dependency approach, which aims to reform it. Particularly Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) created a great amount of literature outlining a theoretical critique of capitalism. The best place to look for details would be Marx and Engels’ The Communist Manifesto (1848) or Marx’s The Capital (1867).

As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is D. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels can be said to be the main theorists of economic structualism approach. Adam Smith and David Ricardo formulated economic liberalism approach. Alexander Hamilton and Friedrich List can be said to be main theorists of economic nationalism.

Economic liberals believe that individuals act in rational ways to maximize their self-interests, that when individuals act rationally, markets are created to produce goods and services that people need, and that market functions best when it is free of government interference. At the international level, international wealth is believed to be maximized with free exchange of goods and services on the basis of comparative advantage. Economic nationalism, on the other hand, refers to an ideology that favors state interventionism in the economic sphere. The nationalists believe that closing off an economy to external influences can be beneficial to growth and economic progress. Thus, economic nationalism can be defined as a mixture of trade protectionism and economic planning, with an aim to preserve national interests in the context of world markets. Economic structuralism, finally, stresses that the relationship among individuals, society, state and the market, in general, can be characterized by severe competition which is conflictual and exploitative. By extension, the relationship among states, which support owners of the means of production, is also conflictual because of inherent expansion of capitalism. It is also argued that constantly expanding markets of capitalism inevitably lead to economic crises, and dangerous speculation by holders of capital only exacerbates these crises. To eliminate economic problems and conflict inherent in the capitalist system, the capitalist system must be overthrown. The correct answer is C.

In addition to the fact that foreign policy

activities are tied to moral principles, some foreign

policy goals also have ethical and moral content.

Foreign policy goals are addressed to certain

concepts such as peace, law, justice, international

stability, social solidarity and freedom.

The founding members of the British Committee were Herbert Butterfield
(historian), Martin Wight (IR Scholar), Desmond Williams (historian), Michael Howard (military historian), Geoffrey Hudson (historian), Donald McKinnon (philosopher), William Armstrong (economist from the Treasury Department), Adam Watson (diplomat), and Hedley Bull (IR scholar).

David Ricardo (1772-1823) is a representative for economic liberalism.

That is, states should produce and export those products which they can produce most efficiently, relative to other states. If international trade is free and is away from certain restrictions, it is believed that all nations win in the final analysis out of a great amount of international exchanges. This way, nations also get to know each other, cultural exchanges can occur, stereotypes can be reduced, and peace can spread all over the world.

The Commonwealth of Independent States, or CIS, was formed during the disintegration of the Soviet Union by some of the former Soviet republics. The CIS is comparable to a very loose association of states and in no way comparable to a federation or a confederation The correct answer is B.

Regimes are established on the basis of cooperation in the international system. The reasoning and benefits to such cooperation is approached differently by realists and liberals. Realists assume regimes create differential benefits while liberals assume they promote the common good.

The Bretton Woods system was eventually dissolved between 1968 and 1973. The overvaluation of the United States dollar led to concerns among the members of the system over the exchange rates and their tie to the price of gold. In August 1971, President Richard Nixon announced the “temporary” suspension of the dollar’s convertibility into gold. While the dollar had struggled throughout most of the 1960s within the parity established at Bretton Woods, this crisis marked the breakdown of the system. A later attempt to revive the fixed exchange rates failed and by March 1973, major currencies began to float against each other.

Even though the Bretton Woods monetary system itself collapsed this way, the so-called Bretton Woods institutions, which were set up along with the Bretton Woods Agreement, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), now the World Trade Organization (WTO), have survived, still directing international trade and finance to a great extent. As also understood from the information given, the crrect answer is E.

The distinctions of the English School from the other schools and its merits are: a) ontological and epistemological pluralism, b) its historical approach repudiating both determinism and presentism, c) the significance given to values and cultural and civilizational identities.

It is the meta-ethical position that some system of ethics, or a universal ethic, applies universally, that is, for “all similarly situated individuals”, regardless of culture, race, sex, religion, nationality, sexual orientation, or any other distinguishing feature. Moral universalism is opposed to moral nihilism and moral relativism.

After the Second World War, the Bretton Woods system came into being. Under the Bretton Woods Agreement, currencies were pegged to the price of gold, and the United States dollar was seen as a reserve currency linked to the price of gold. In 1958, the Bretton Woods system became fully functional, as national currencies became convertible. In order to convert currencies, countries settled their international balances in dollars, while United States dollars were fully convertible to gold. The exchange rate applied at the time was $35/ounce. The system had worked well for a while, but eventually dissolved between 1968 and 1973. The overvaluation of the United States dollar led to concerns among the members of the system over the exchange rates and their tie to the price of gold. An attempt to revive the fixed exchange rates failed and by March 1973, major currencies began to float against each other. The correct answer is C.

Globalization is, in a generic sense, a process of interaction among people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment.

According to Walt, there are four elements that define perceived threat. The four elements of threat are aggregate power, geographic proximity, offensive capabilities, and offensive intentions. Basically, how powerful is it, how close is it, how much military might is it capable of, and is it acting aggressively? Those are the four criteria that states use to evaluate the threat posed by other states.