Ancient Greece (500 BC-100 BC demonstrated an early example of a state system, when many small Greek city-states such as Athens, Sparta, Corinth, or Ephesus established extensive relations and an informal means of discussing the
major issues of the day. With small populations and territories and a lack of institutions such as international law, diplomacy, or international organization, the Greek state system was instead based on a shared language, culture, and common religion (Jackson and Sorensen, 2013: 12). These are the basic features that most distinguish it from the modern international system established after the Peace of Westphalia.

Signed on September 18, 1815, the Holy
Alliance was a compact crowned by an extremely
conservative spirit whose motivating factor
was to isolate France and the nationalist and
revolutionary ideas she had unleashed. It was the
product of the Habsburg, Hohenzollern, and
Romanov monarchies (Austria, Prussia, and Russia
respectively). Its scheme was proposed by Alexander
I of Russia and became a manifesto of absolute
monarchy—from the divine right of the kings that
appears in Holy Scripture to Christianity’s value
system, in which a king should rule with justice and
love his subjects as the shepherd does his flock or
the father his family (Mowatt, 1922: 23-24). The
alliance was also proposed as a spiritual bonding of
the three sects of Christianity, Catholic, Protestant,
and Orthodox, in which all three monarchs
accepted each other as brothers and equals and
promised to rule their subjects through Christian
charity, justice, and peace, and help one another
fulfill the role given to them by God. According to these information, the phrase in option A is wrong.

People from different regions came together in the Italian city-states to exchange culture, ideas, beliefs, and intellectual accumulation. Another critical link in this development was the conquest of Istanbul in 1453, which encouraged many Eastern scholars to flee to the Italian peninsula, bringing with them vast collections of ancient books and manuscripts. 

The reaction of the continental states to the American Revolution is noteworthy. In allying themselves with the insurgent colonies, both France and Spain welcomed the opportunity to even their odds with their archenemy, Britain. It should be noted, then, that neither France nor Spain or any other state in Europe saw the events in North America as revolutionary. The Declaration of Independence in 1776 was merely assumed as a crack in the politics of the British Empire, not a social upheaval of subjects against their kings; the role of the American bourgeoisie was neglected. Ratifying its constitution by 1791, the United States of America was declared as a federal republic, announcing a new type of sovereignty based upon the people rather than an absolute monarch. In the sight of cautious philosophers like Immanuel Kant, this was a promising achievement of humanity to determine his/her own will. In the sight of Europe’s bureaucratic monarchies, it was merely a welcomed blow to Britain’s might.

France was not one of the Central Powers in the First World War.

The Treaty of Versailles was the most important post-World War I treaty since it determined the fate of Germany. Signed on June 28, 1919, the Versailles Treaty created a new international order, a large goal of which was to keep Germany incapacitated. The correct answer is B. 

There were also semi-autonomous local rulers such as lords and knights who were not fully independent either.

The revolutions of 1848 effectively destroyed the absolutist regimes in Europe (except in Russia), thus ending the very basis upon which the Holy Alliance was built. As Metternich was taken out of office, the last political figure from the Congress of Vienna had departed. The signatories of the Holy Alliance and founders of the Concert system eventually ceased to exist. The rise of liberalism and nationalism with the revolutionary movements and their success in establishing constitutional regimes affected the policy-making of the states. 

The Treaty of Paris signed in March 1856 demilitarized the Black Sea and secured the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, all strategies put forward by Britain at the expense of Russia.

The immediate impact of the Gallipoli Campaign was the inclusion of Italy and Bulgaria to the war.

Among the great powers, it was Austria, which stood out as both the organizer and balancer of the system. In addition to this, monarchism, anti-nationalism, and anti-liberalism were the main fundamentals of the post-Vienna peace. The other sentences are correct. "B" is the correct option.

The cornerstones that the Industrial Revolution stood on can be summarized into three main topics: technological advance, improved production, and the redistribution of labor. Accordingly, the correct answer is option D.

The Treaty of Kadesh was signed between the Egyptians and the Hittites. Therefore, the correct choice is C.

While the Anglo-Japanese Alliance provided the Japanese much needed diplomatic and financial support in a possible war against Russia, it also enabled Britain to sustain the status quo in China without directly challenging Russia. Moreover, the Russians’ heavy defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 helped Britain halt the growing Russian influence in China, and removed the imminent Russian threat to Pax Britannica in the Far East.

Aiming to weaken the British economy, the continental system was the strategy of Napoleon that prohibited the British trade with neutral states and French allies. According to these, the correct answer is given in option B.

In the field of International Relations, the concept of the state system refers to the relationships between politically organized groups that have distinctive territories, are not influenced by higher authorities, and exercise a measure of
independence from one another.

What were the main characteristics of the post-Vienna political system of Europe?
1. Initially, at the Congress of Vienna, the fundamentals of peace were determined by agreement among the four major powers, be it the Holy or Quadruple Alliance. These were Austria, Britain, Russia, and Prussia. In 1818, France was also granted a great power status and accepted into the European Concert.
2. The Napoleonic map was redesigned as much as possible to pre-1789 borders by the dissolution of Napoleonic states and the restoration of European monarchies. No state was to be reformed in a nationalistic fashion.
3. Monarchism, anti-nationalism, and antiliberalism were the main fundamentals of the post-Vienna peace, while wars of conquest within Europe were now assumed to be a hostile action by the major actors and the great powers now countered the aggressive use of force to redraw borders. If war became inevitable with the failure of diplomacy, any power would first have to collectively to quarantine the belligerent power with the other Concert members.
4. The major powers agreed to reconcile matters among themselves rather than take individual action. Diplomacy was always to take precedence over the use of force, a last resort.
5. Preserving the peace by acting in concert became the major powers’ common goal, for which diplomacy became an effective instrument of action.
6. Among the great powers, Austria stood out as both the organizer and balancer of the system.

According to these, the correct answer is option D.

Russia’s position became more precarious, as the Ottomans closed the straits to the Black Sea, seriously damaging the link between the Entente Powers.

The introduction of new materials like iron and steel enabled people to build new machinery, and new and powerful energy resources like coal and petrol made it possible to push the limits of mechanics. There was an ever-growing interest in science and its productive uses, especially in daily life.

In order to prevent an unstable situation created by Russia after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 from exploding, Bismarck convened the Congress of Berlin in 1878 as a check and balance for the region.