Even if we may be able to both separate political from nonpolitical issues and give priority to the latter, this does not mean, however, that we can solve political problems in this way- that we can achieve world order through a functional cooperation among states. This is, in fact, where scholars criticize functionalists’ means to sustain and promote world order. Functionalists have advocated that the functional approach is pragmatic; however, one may argue that by believing in a single formula, that cooperation in economic and social issues will lead to world peace, functionalists have not adopted the pluralistic, eclectic approach of pragmatism to solving problems at any level of social life.

According to John Ikenberry, the Concert of Europe had three major mechanisms: • The Quadruple Alliance (later Quintuple) that was extended to the peacetime and formed the great power ensemble. • The periodical congress system that served as an institutional consultation mechanism among great powers to maintain the status quo. • The diffusion of “promulgation of norms and rules of European public law” that gave “the institutional, territorial, and great-power arrangements in Europe a certain sense of legal-based legitimacy and authority” (Ikenberry, 2001: 98).

If the members of an organization belong to a specific geographical region, this kind of organization is classified as a regional organization. The most notable examples of regional organizations are the European Union (EU), the African Union (AU) and the Organization of American States (OAS).

Charles Beitz criticized the Hobbesian or Realist morality that he calls “international skepticism” as well as the legalists’ understanding of morality, that is, “the morality of state.”

The other thoerists are the ones who used collective security as an alternative system to the balance of power.

Therefore, the correct option is D.

The Hague Conference can be considered as the first global conference in the history of the international relations.

The correct answer is E.According to Schechter, these early public international unions had numerous functions. They served as the:

• Collection point and clearinghouses for information,

• Centers for collective decisions on the solution of common problems,

• Tools for the coordination of national policy and practices,

• Agencies for promoting uniform standards in their fields.

Particular river commissions also fulfilled regulatory, administrative, supervisory, and adjudicatory functions (Schechter, 2010: lxvii).

It is generally agreed that the notion of a centralized territorial sovereign state came to light in the late 17th century as European monarchs gained power as supreme sovereigns over their realms.  

Intergovernmental organizations are divided into three categories:

• IGOs under the total control of the leading member states
• Semi-autonomous IGOs
• Autonomous IGOs

This typology is based on member states’ influence in the organization. The first type of IGOs reflects the classical realist approach that IGOs only act on the basis of the will of their member states. Semi-autonomous IGOs, on the other hand, are organizations that can cooperate with states to achieve collective goals through mediating or arbitrating disputes, providing forums, and helping toward finding a peaceful solution to conflicts. On the other hand, autonomous organizations enjoy a freedom of maneuver in pursuing their own policies. As is also understood from the information given, the correct answer is C. “IGOs under the total control of the leading member states”, “Semi-autonomous IGOs” and “Autonomous IGOs” are the categories of intergovermental organizations (IGOs) according to the typology which is based on member states’ influence in the organization.

Another typology of organizations based on the membership criterion is related to the geographical representation. Regional organization and is a category of this group. If the members of an organization belong to a specific geographical region, this kind of organization is classified as a regional organization. The most notable examples of regional organizations are the European Union (EU), the African Union (AU) and the Organization of American States (OAS). If its membership is not confined to a particular region and open to all states, this kind of organization is classified as a universal organization such as the UN. Nevertheless, this typology is contested. For one thing, the scope of a regional organization is not always clear; for another, its membership may be defined on the basis of a common economic, social, cultural, and political background.

The correct answer is D.All the European states that had taken part in the Napoleonic Wars replied positively to the invitation. The Congress convened in November 1814 in Vienna. Nevertheless, the decision-making process was carried out by the four major powers that were the signatories of the Treaty of Chaumont. They were namely England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Throughout the Congress of Vienna, these powers singlehandedly drew the new European map, dissolved Napoleonic states, restored the old monarchies that Napoleon dismissed and made extensive border changes through annexations (Mowat, 1922: 7-8). A brief period in which Napoleon came to power in France once again caused some nuisance. However, this short reign did not upset the functioning of the Congress, and the decisive defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo sealed his fate.

World government is an old idea in political theory that one authority can and should sustain order at the global level. Pax Romana and Pax Britannica, for example, are known as eras of relative peace and order in world history that was provided by a single power- the hegemon. We see the reemergence of this idea especially after the Second World War in the theory of world government. In post-WWII world, the United States of America is considered to be the world government with military bases all around the world. Therefore, the correct option is A.

International regimes are mostly seen in issue areas related to the environment, trade, human rights, arms control, and international security. International security regimes differ from other types of international regimes for four reasons:

1. First, security issues have a higher degree of competitiveness between states than other issues. Conflicts and wars are inherently a zero-sum game.
2. Second, the costs of benefits and errors are much higher in the security realm. States are almost impossible to get a second chance to fix their false policy choices. If states delay their responses, results may also be devastating.
3. Third, since it is difficult to separate defensive and offensive motives in security policy choices, both status-quo and nonstatus quo states may engage in a similar behavior to change or maintain the balance of power.
4. Finally, international actors are forced to behave under a high degree of uncertainty to detect and interpret the behavior of other actors in the security arena (Jervis, 1983).

The following are about climate change regime:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCCC] (1992-1997) (1997-1998)

UNFCCC Financial Mechanism (1992-1997) (1997-1998)

 Kyoto-Protocol

World government is an old idea in political theory that one authority can and should sustain order at the global level. Pax Romana and Pax Britannica, for example, are known as eras of relative peace and order in world history that was provided by a single power- the hegemon. We see the reemergence of this idea especially after the Second World War in the theory of world government. The correct option is A.

A specific group of scholars known as WorldOrder-Models-Project (WOMP) scholars (such as Richard Falk, Rajni Kothari, Ali Mazrui, and Gustavo Lagos) have both elaborated on the morality and given specific cosmopolitan proposals for a more orderly world.

The roots of IOs can be traced back to the emergence of the modern international system after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Because the early international system had been mainly dominated by European nation states, first IOs emerged in the 19th century in Europe. The Congress of Vienna (1815) created a more convenient atmosphere for the development of IOs. The role and place of the state in the system also changed as a result of the development of communication systems. Therefore, it became necessary to define the changing nature of the international system and the role of power and states in international affairs. With the involvement of the different types of actors, the international system has become more complicated and interdependent.

James Rosenau is the one offering global governance.

Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye have developed the term “complex interdependence".

Archer has studied the aims and activities of IOs.

Evans and Newham identify the scope of global governance

Rooted in the writings of Thomas Hobbes and Niccolo Machiavelli, the  international system refers to the anarchical international structure and self-centered actors (states), who seek after their interests in a race of survival and therefore follow power politics.

Hugo Grotious is a Dutch philosopher and statesman who lived between 1538 and 1645. His main importance in the theory and practice of international relations is his contributions to the development of international law. 

Objective requirements refer to the specific security environment that the theory of collective security envisages. According to the collective security scheme, an attack in the system against any state will trigger the combined resistance of all other states. It is, in other words, a scheme of ‘all against one;’ a scheme for creating a preponderance of power against the aggressor. Nevertheless, the existing security environment may not be conducive to follow such a principle in the international system at least for two reasons: the thermonuclear revolution and the grouping of states along ideological lines.

Unlike realists and neorealists who emphasize the concepts of “self-help” and “relative capability” in international politics, liberals focus on common interests where states can cooperate with one another and collaborate toward setting a framework for an institutionalized cooperation.