Objective requirements refer to the specific security environment that the theory of collective security envisages.

Due to the absence of the US as well as the reluctance of Japan and Italy, the Council was dominated by Britain and France.

Throughout the Congress of Vienna, these powers singlehandedly drew the new European map, dissolved Napoleonic states, restored the old monarchies that Napoleon dismissed and made extensive border changes through annexations (Mowat, 1922: 7-8).

The idea of global governance is based on the formation of an international society, which consists of nation states that aim at forming global institutions and following global practices. The process of globalization of an international society includes reflective universalism that embodies state-society relations around the world. These interactions involve not only the formation of universal values and norms, but also common practices aiming at creating a peaceful world order. Universalism is a theme prominently associated with the modern world-system. It is in many ways one of its boasts. Universalism means in general the priority to general rules applying equally to all persons, and therefore the rejection of particularistic preferences in most spheres. The League of Nations was the first attempt at putting the idea of universalism into action with regard to peace and international security. The United Nations is the second international organizations with universal values. For several reasons, the UN is considered a more effective organization than its predecessor, the League of Nations. The idea of universalism embedded in the UN’s structure and autonomy is reflected in many ways. As is also understood from the information given, the correct answer is A.

“The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)”, “Warsaw Pact” and “The European Union” are regional cooperations. There is a growing trend of regional groupings and formal institutional structures in today’s world affairs. The initial regionalist developments as a formal institutional cooperation in international relations came into existence in peace and security issues. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact as alliances exemplify the establishment of a permanent organizational structure to deal with regional security challenges. Besides, we observe the establishment of regional economic, social, and political organizations, especially in Europe, following the end of the Second World War. The European Coal and Steel Community, which subsequently evolved into the European Economic Community, and the European Union are the most representative initiatives in regionalization.

The Concert contributed to the cooperation among European states for maintaining peace as well as the governance of the system. However, it did not produce permanent international bodies for resolving the disputes. Nor did it contribute to the institutionalization of international regulations and norms by way of codifying them into international law. 

Following the Battle of Waterloo, the major powers signed two separate alliance treaties consecutively, the Holy Alliance and the Quadruple Alliance. The former, signed on 18 September 1815, was a proclamation of the three East European monarchies, that is, the royal houses of Habsburg, Hohenzollern, and Romanov.

The First Hague Conference was held in May 1899 with the attendance of 26 states.

The Peace of Westphalia ended the feudal system based on the primacy of the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire and led to the emergence of new political entities called “sovereign states.” Thus, it indeed marked the beginning of an international milieu that would facilitate the emergence of nation-states. 

Functionalism, as another Idealist proposal for world order, argues for the organization of international cooperation not along the line of territoriality but of specific social and economic activities.

In fact, looking from a broader historical perspective, Reves thought that war has occurred wherever and whenever political units of equal sovereignty have faced each other. The solution to the problem of war, then, would be “integrating the warring units into a higher sovereignty.” This higher sovereignty, or world government, would be provided with legislative, judicial, and executive powers, as the result being “a legal order within which all peoples may enjoy equal security, equal obligation and equal rights under law.” Reves believed that if such a higher authority proves impossible to be created by the consent of nation states, conquest would be permissible. “If we cannot attain to universalism and create union by common consent and democratic methods as a result of rational thinking,” he concluded, “then rather than retard the process, let us precipitate unification by conquest” (Reves, 1945: 122, 125, 269).
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Global commons are defined as natural resources and areas that are outside the national jurisdiction (Vogler, 2012: 61).

International Organizations (IOs) mainly provide a common platform for members to meet, deliberate, find solutions to their common problems, resolve their disputes, and widen their collaboration.

These are: articulation and aggregation, norm-setting, recruitment, socialization, rulemaking, rule application, rule adjudication, information, and operation.

The first main function of IOs is articulation and aggregation. This refers to the ability of IOs to bring together unions or organizations that focus on similar issues.

The second significant function of IOs is norm-setting. International organizations greatly contribute to the creation of new norms. They also encourage states to involve in norm-setting processes. Throughout the 20th century, IOs played key roles in the development of new international norms especially on human rights, slavery, global economy, and environment.

The third function of IOs is recruitment. This refers to their organizational capacity to allow new members to become a member of the international community with full rights.

The fourth main function of IOs is socialization. In general, socialization can be considered as a learning process of states about values. INGOs can enable people who share the same beliefs to get socialized at the international level.

Other three significant functions of IOs are rule-making, rule application, and rule adjudication. Although these kind of functions are more associated with states, IOs also fulfil such roles in the international system. These functions of IOs are particularly important because the absence of a central authority makes it difficult to produce common rules in international politics.

Another main function of international organizations is concerned with information and operation. IOs provide mechanisms for the exchange of information among states. Through new information technologies and regular meetings, they help different actors discuss common problems, and as such they not onlyfoster information but also decrease the transaction costs. IOs also fulfil operational roles especially in the international banking system and aid mechanisms for the developing countries. As they are established mostly in issue-specific areas, NGOs provide expertise and technical assistance thanks to their organizational structure.

As is also understood from the information given, the correct answer is E. “Articulation and Aggregation”, “Norm-setting”, “Recruitment” and “Socialization” are among the functions of international organizations. The other functions of international organizations which do not take place in the options are “Rule Application” and “Rule Adjudication”.

Stated positively, world order is a condition of the system, marked by the high probability that international relations will be peacefully managed. It suggests cosmos rather than chaos, settled patterns of behavior rather than unpredictability, and agreed rather than forced decisions.

The traditional/realist approach to intergovernmental organizations considers that IGOs are based on the principle of state sovereignty. As such, IGOs are built on the idea that states are the only subjects of international law and they are legally equal.

Expressions with numbered as I, III and IV are expressions are emphasized by neoliberals.

A zero-sum game is a situation in which one actor’s gain means another actor’s loss.

The correct answer is C.The Council had four permanent members- namely, England, France, Japan, and Italy- and three non-permanent members who were selected by the Assembly for a three-year term.

Based on Hugo Grotius’ reflections, the international society refers to the trend of institutionalism of shared interests among states through the creation of regulations, norms, and rules that will be commonly agreed.

It is an old idea in political theory that one authority can and should sustain order at the global level. Pax Romana and Pax Britannica, for example, are known as eras of relative peace and order in world history that was provided by a single power- the hegemon. Having ruled the most of the middle east, Europe and near eastand Africa, Ottoman Empire can be considered to have been a world government. Therefore, the correct option is C.