The reasons why people resist organizational change are as follows:

1. It is considered an unwelcome disturbance and interference to their established routine.

2. People may perceive as negatively affecting their job security, payment and status differentials, working conditions, and value of their acquired skills.

3. Managers often resist changes proposed by specialists such as systems and HRM experts because they perceive a risk to the smooth running of their operations in accepting the potential disruption caused by something new. 

4. Specialists for their part are often uncomfortable with the emphasis that new forms of organizing place on their integration with other specialists in teams or other units that cut across traditional disciplinary or functional boundaries. They may, therefore, resist developments of this kind.

Innovation in organization methods for external relationships involves the implementation of new ways of organizing relationships with other firms or public institutions, such as collaboration with public organizations, methods for integration with suppliers, or outsourcing.

Managerial decision-making is a matter of finding solutions or action plans for problems and providing the maximum benefit for organizational stakeholders. This problem may involve finding the best inputs, offering the best service, or designing the best production process. It may sometimes involve choosing the right move against competitors or offering a solution to a threat to the environment.

Escalation of commitment means that if you also have proofs that prove the truth of the idea against your own idea, you still insist on the accuracy of your own idea. Although many decisions by top level managers satisfy them, these ideas may not be that much rational. And despite this possibility, they may have the tendency to show an increasing commitment to their previous decision, which can be seen frequently in top level managers’ decision-making process. According to some explanations, the reason of the commitment to these wrong decisions is the denial of first mistaken decision by the manager himself.

Based on a review of cultural approaches Mats Alvesson from the Lund University of Sweden concludes that culture has specific characteristics , such as: culture is not a rational and analytical phenomenon; it is more of an integrative, subjective, and emotional phenomenon.

Rational decision-making process ignores the individual preferences and values of managers not Carnegie decision model. The correct answer is B.

Ethics is about personal morality. Organizations can reinforce ethical values and behavior by using tactics given below; • Selecting and recruiting ethically developed employees, • Determining moral codes, • Ethical leadership, • Designing performance management and defining organizational objectives in relation to the ethical standards, • Ethics training and education, • Independent audits and • Setting up proactive mechanisms for preventing unethical behavior

The U-form has some advantages. First, it allows work to be done by highly qualified specialists. Second, it lowers costs by reducing duplication. On the other hand, slow decision making, and narrowing the experience and expertise of the employees are some disadvantages of the U-form. 

"Organizations as Machines" metaphor described by Gareth Morgan emphasizes the technical, hierarchical, rational, prolific, mechanical, and productive aspects of organizations. Organizations mostly defined by classical organizational approaches are defined by this metaphor.

Technology Management is defined as a process for planning and controlling the necessary technologies to shape and realize the strategic and functional goals of the organizations.

Culture is an integrative pattern of the meaningmaking process which people subconsciously use to understand the world surrounding them via the shared set of values and beliefs, language, symbols, and physical artifacts.

This model can only be used in cases where organizational anarchy rules, which has THREE structural features: 

• Problematic preferences
• Unclear, poorly understood technology
• Turnover

The correct answer is B.

Organizational culture is shared social knowledge among organizational members shaping organizational members’ attitudes and behaviors based on mutually accepted rules, norms, and values.

In Carnegie Model: 

• Limited information is available
• Decision making is costly
• Decision making is affected by the preferences and values of decision makers 
• A limited range of alternatives is generated
• Solution is chosen by compromise, bargaining, and accommodation between organizational coalitions
• Solution chosen is satisfactory for the organization