Calvinism fostered the Protestant ethic of hard work and asceticism. Calvinism is rooted in the concept of predestination, which means that before people are born, some of them are selected for heaven and others for hell. Protestantism was an important influence on the development of capitalism. Capitalism blossomed with the advent of calvinism. The correct answer is C.

Values gain efficiency through norms. The social norms emerge in the form of religious rules, moral rules, manners and customs, etiquette and legal rules in social life. The norms are cultural rules, which arise with the reward and punishment system and affect the individuals’ behaviors. All cultures, subcultures and groups have distinctive and specific norms that direct correct behaviors. The acts and laws, rules about clothing, games and sports, etc. all reflect social norms. These norms are based on the values of a society, where values become applicable in social life through these norms.

Berger and Luckmann argued that all certainty is basically uncertain; it has a very inconsistent foundation. Things are real because people believe they are real. Life is meaningful because of the meaning people give to it.

The phenomenological approach is particularly associated with the work of Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann. Berger and Luckmann have put forward a phenomenological view of religion: Religion is produced by members of society subjectively interpreting and giving meaning to the world around them.

According to Luckmann, the function of religion can be understood to reduce uncertainty and complexity, to determine which seems to be indeterminate, and to make accessible what seems to be inaccessible. The supernatural dimension of religion, therefore, comes in handy because it serves to reduce complexity.

Berger and Luckmann argue that religion is probably the most effective mechanism for the legitimation of universes of meaning. Unlike other sources of legitimation, only religion links meaning with ultimate reality. In other words, according to Berger and Luckmann, religion is socially constructed as a means of responding to life’s uncertainties and disruptions.

For Berger and Luckmann, the sociology of religion is closely related to the sociology of knowledge. For Luckmann, an important function of religion is that it helps us acquire a sense of “self”, knowing who we are, and where we fit in, a world view that endows everyday life with ultimate significance. To the extent, with regard to Berger and Luckmann’s perspective, religion provides believers with crucial explanations and meanings that they use to make sense of their lives, not least during times of personal or social crisis.

As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is D. The arguments in the options I, II, III and IV are the arguments of phenomenological understanding of religion. The argument in the option V is Weber’s argument. In short, Weber’s writings on religion differ from those of Durkheim in that they concentrate on the connection between religion and social change, something to which Durkheim gave little attention. They contrast with the work of Marx, because Weber argues that religion is not necessarily a conservative force; on the contrary, religiously inspired movements have often produced dramatic social transformations.

American Sociologists Rodney Stark and Willams S. Bainbridge’s explanation on religion consists of a number of insights into religious organizations, institutions and religious change (Rational Choice Theory). Unlike Durkheim, Stark and Bainbridge see religion as meeting the needs of individuals rather than those of society as a whole. Unlike Marx, they see religion as meeting universal human needs rather than those which stem from class inequality and exploitation. Furthermore, they reject the view, shared by classic sociologists of religion that the development of industrial capitalist societies would undermine religion. Directly influenced by Homans’ exchange theory, Stark and Bainbridge construct a deductive theory of religion. It can be said that the approach developed by Stark and Bainbridge used the exchange theory to explain religious behaviour of individuals as based on the principle that all human interactions can be treated as a form of exchange. They rely on the basic principle of exchange theory that humans seek what they perceive to be rewards and try to avoid what they perceive to be costs. The correct answer is E.

The phenomenological approach is particularly associated with the work of PeterBerger and Thomas Luckmann. Berger and Luckmann have put forward a phenomenological view of religion: Religion is produced by members of society subjectively interpreting and giving meaning to the world around them.Phenomenologists are interested in the ways in which we make sense of our world and the meanings that people attach to their actions.Meaning is arrived at through the use of concepts and categories of thought, and shared meanings link individuals to the wider social group and thus can be a source of social stability. Religion, then, can help to create order through a shared world view, including that of the pace of humans in the cosmic universe and understanding of the existential problems of life, joy, suffering and death.

The anomie that Durkheim has described refers to a state of normlessness and irregularity that arises in periods of social changes and irregularities, in the event that the social order deteriorates or fails to operate. In this case, people become more aggressive and depressed, resulting in an increase in violence, crime and suicide rates.
Anomie is related to a social situation, not to a personal state of mind. It is caused by the tension between individual interests and collective cultural conscious.

A, B, C, refer to the characteristics of the modern culture while D  refers to a characteristic of the postmodernisation. On the hand grobalization refers to  the imperialistic goals, desires, and needs of big businesses or companies. Thus the correct answer is E. 

Culture critic Matthew Arnold (1822- 1888) identified culture with “aesthetic excellence” when he defined culture as the best of what is said and thought in the world in all matters that most concern us, or the best that has been thought and known. This approach, which regards culture as equivalent to intellectual and artistic activities and ideas, considers culture to be a synonym for high culture in the duality of high culture and popular culture. Thus, cultural forms that may not be directly, but are indirectly more popular, are not considered “culture”. The correct answer is A. 

Endogamy is the practice of marrying only within a specific ethnic, social or religious group and rejecting people out of this group. D is the correct answer. 

Laicism is the separation of religious and state affairs Laicism involves freedom of thought and faith. However, in a given society, even though freedom of thought and faith is ensured, laicism may not exist. In this sense, “a laic social order is a social order that every person from diverse religions and beliefs, on equal conditions, observing the same regulations, not distinguishing any religious privileges and supremacy”. Laicism is a term that emerged as a consequence of the French constitutional practice in the 19th century. Laicism is an inevitable element of modern social orders. The correct answer is E.

Endogamy is the practice of marrying only within a specific ethnic, social or religious groupand rejecting people out of this group.

The marriage rule permitting only one partneris monogamy. The opposite is polygamy, which includes more than one partner.

Matrilocality is the social system and a socially instituted practice in which the married couple resides with or near to the wife’s kin.

The practice of tracing the descent from female line is called matrilineality.

Correct answer is B.

According to Berger and Luckmann, religion helps to build, maintain and legitimate universes of meaning. Throughout human history religion has played a decisive part in the construction and maintenance of universes. A universe of meaning requires constant legitimation: It needs repeated reinforcement and justification. The correct answer is C. 

Michael Young and Peter Willmott, in their book entitled “The Symmetrical Family” (1973), trace the development of the family from preindustrial England in the 1970s. They argue that the family has gone through four stages. The first stage is the pre-industrial family stage. The family is a unit of production, with all family members working together, typically in agriculture or textile. Correct answer is C.

Karl Marx (1818–1883) studied the social impact of religion. He believed religion reflects the social stratification of society and maintains inequality and perpetuates the status quo. For him, religion is a popular reaction to oppression. He famously argued that religion “is the opium of people”. Marx considered religion inseparable from the economy and the worker. Religion could not be understood apart from the capitalist society that maintained inequality. The correct answer is B.

According to Emile Durkheim, religion begins with the division of the world into two kinds of phenomena: the profane and the sacred.

Conflict theories have also macro characteristics just like the functionalist theory and focus on the social structure. In these approaches, the views that deviance is determined by factors such as biology, anomie, social disorder or labels are not accepted. The main argument of conflict theories, based on Marx’s thoughts, is that individuals are actively involved in deviant behaviors as a reaction to the inequalities of capitalist order and that the laws and other norms exist in order to protect the interests of strong members of society.

The assumption of families exist in all societies derives from a study of G. P. Murdock. Murdock, a functionalist anthropologist, examined 250 societies in a wide range including both hunting and gathering societies and industrial societies. He concluded that a form of family exists in every society, thus the family is a universal social institution. For Murdock, the family is also a social group characterized by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults. The correct answer is E.