Steps of rational decision-making process:

• Define problem
• Determine the requirements that the solution to the problem must meet
• Establish goals that solving the problem should accomplish
• Identify alternatives that will solve the problem
• Develop evaluation criteria based on the goals
• Select a decision-making tool
• Apply the tool to select a preferred alternative
• Check the answer to make sure it solves the problem

The correct answer is A.

If employees experience the feelings mentioned in the questions, it means that the organizational culture is unhealthy and toxic. If there are such problems in an organization, managers should diagnose the problem and take actions to solve it. The following may be considered a checklist for managers to diagnoses such a problem: 

• Every member of the organization is open to communication and have modest characteristics.

• All members of the organization are empowered and held accountable.

• Employees are encouraged to take risks within set limits.

• Searching for better alternatives about how jobs to be done is the norm

• Mistakes are tolerated to some degree and treated as a learning opportunity.

• Honesty is the primary building block of the organizational culture.

• Collaboration is part of the standard operating procedures.

• Courage and resilience are essential individual characteristics to become an active participant in the organization.

The term “technique” refers to the set of scientific knowledge and experience to use to accomplish tasks, technology is the ability of using the scientific knowledge and experience with the help of tools, machines and materials.

Professionalism is about the formal education and improvement level of employees. The need for long-term education and improvement implies a high level of professionalism, which is measured by the average study periods of employees. For example, medical doctors in the healthcare sector can be said to have a higher level of education, while the level of professionalism in the construction industry is less high. Likewise, lawyers in the justice sector are said to have a higher level of education, while the level of professionalism in the other occupations listed in the question is less high. Therefore, choice (b) is the correct answer.

There may be need for tools to manage technology and its activities. These tools may help organizations to manage technology more effectively. On the other hand, individuals or groups in the organizations, which are applicable in the whole company, can use these tools. In the literature, many technology management methods are explained. Some of them are given below6: • Technology Management Framework - Computer Aided Manufacturing - Building Project Management - Work Process Engineering - Project Assessment - Product Design - Technology Measurement - Process Design - Engineering Design - Knowledge Management • Information Systems and Technology Management - Decision Support Systems - Object Oriented Programming - Computer Aided System Engineering - Information Based Systems - Database Applications. • Information and Communication Systems • Artificial Intelligence/ Expert Systems • Database technology • Modelling • Multivariate Statistical Techniques

Commonwealth organizations, which are basically for social services, are formed to offer standard services for the majority of the population. The motivator of these organizations is not profit. Police offices, army forces, courts, fire services, and other public institutions are examples of these organizations. The beneficiaries of commonwealth organizations are ordinary people in general.

Internal management may require organizations to hire highly skilled managers or workers to identify problems and find creative solutions for dealing with them about the ongoing processes. Therefore, an efficient human resources management must take the responsibility. On the other hand, innovations or new product developments can be highly complexand costly. Research and development and commercialization issues may also affect the organizational performance.

From the sociological perspective, subculture is defined as groups sharing overall cultural values of the society but diverges from these groups by holding different values brought by their lifestyles, values, and norms.

Questioning, observing, networking and experimenting are the four behaviours innovators have.

First, innovators bring forth insights through questioning, constantly challenging the status quo with “why” and “why not” questions to turn things upside-down. They often ask “what if” questions to envision a different future. Questioning gives you the fuel to power new associations and insights. Second, innovators gather new ideas by observing the environment as if they were anthropologists. They get out of their offices to watch the world around them—especially customers, products, services, and processes—to activate unique ways of doing things. Third, innovators surpass at networking, talking with people to find—or actuate a new way to solve—perplexing problems. They regularly communicate with people who do not look, act, or (most importantly) think as they do. Instead of networking simply to gain resources, they interact with diverse people to get new ideas. Finally, innovators generate insights by invariably experimenting. They test new experiences wherever they go. They disassemble products or processes to see how things work—and how to improve them.

In his "Images of Organization," Gareth Morgan explains the diversity in the field of organization theory and describes different perspectives on the organizations using metaphors. He identifies eight metaphors as Organizations as Machines, Organizations as Organisms,Organizations as Brains, Organizations as Cultures, Organizations as Political Systems, Organizations as Psychic Prisons, Organizations as Flux and Transformation, and Organizations as Instruments of Domination. "Beehive" is not among the metaphors he mentions.

programmed decisions are recurring and predictable with well-defined information and decision criteria. The correct option is A.

There are diverse coordination mechanisms for
organizations:
1. Face-to-face interpersonal interaction
2. Rules and procedures for coordinating routine, recurring activities
3. Standardized plans, skills, and values
4. Direct supervision
5. Staff assistants as specialized administrative personnel created to facilitate interaction between personnel of the same unit
6. Liaisons as specialized positions or units designed to facilitate interchange between interdependent units
7. Teams having members from different units
8. Coordination-supporting software packages
9. Independent integrators, who are independent of the departments they coordinate and report to the manager who oversees those departments.

Therefore, the correct option is D.

Organizational constraints during nonprogrammed decision-making are need for agreement, shared perspective, cooperation, support, corporate culture and structure, ethical values. The correct option is D.

There are five steps for external technology exploitation:

• Planning

• Intelligence

• Negotiation

• Realization

• Control

Process innovation refers to a company’s effort to refine and improve its current processes.

A function is a group of people, working together, who have similar skills or use the same kind of knowledge, tools, or techniques to perform their jobs. A functional form (U-from) consists of all the departments that an organization requires to produce its goods or services.