The main subjects of technology management are listed below.

• Human Resources Management

• Strategies and Politics

• Product or Service Development

• Marketing, organizations and program management

• Transferring of technology

• Corporations among universities and industries

• Organizational structures and procedures

• Planning and controlling, mathematical and statistical modelling

• Entrepreneurship and Intrapreneurship, International Entrepreneurship

• Supply chain management

Innovators bring forth insights through questioning, constantly challenging the status quo with “why” and “why not” questions to turn things upside-down.

Technology can be protected by the instruments listed below:

• Patents (legal right to exclude other organizations given by the government)

• Trademarks (Word, name, symbol, etc.)

• Copyrights (Protection of lierary work, musical work, dramatic work, sound recordings)

• Trade Secrets (Protecting the internal secret information)

• Know-How (Contractual transfer of knowledge from experts)

The increase in individualism and alienation (rather than collectivism) triggered lonely people to search for an identity and they celebrated organizational culture because it allowed people to answer aching questions for raison d’etre! “Who am I, what is my reason for being in this world? etc.

Technically advanced production and the rise of service industry led employees  to be more customer-focused (not product-focused) and technically qualified. Consequently, skillful and well trained employees preferred independent working conditions. Organizational culture, as a way of controlling employee behavior, allows members to use their judgment, and act more freely within defined organizational norms. Once members of the organizations cultivated with organizational values, close supervision will be redundant.

Machine bureaucracy gradually became less useful in managing people: This movement led scholars focusing on the human aspect of management, or in other words, “soft” aspects of organizations.

Innovative production techniques usually decrease the overall flexibility of the organization. To balance the level of efficiency with the degree of flexibility, organizations should employ people who have a sense of active belonging and commitment. Organizational culture is providing a cognitive scheme through which members can agree upon collective values, and thus elevate the level of organizational commitment.

Finally, observing the Japanese cultural value system and its reflections within Japanese organizations, other countries also tried to understand and encapsulate these reflections for themselves, and hence the interest in the cultural aspect of organizations tend to strengthen. This is called Japanese miracle.

There are three advantages of the U-form. First, it allows high-degree of specialization. Second, it lowers costs by reducing duplication. Third, it eases communication and coordination for departmental managers. At the same time, the possible difficulty of cross-department coordination, slow decision making, and narrowing the experience and expertise of the employees are some disadvantages of the U-form.

I refers to coordination. III and IV refer to reward.

Disruptive innovation refers to having the existent technical knowledge base and exploring a new business model.

Planned change models view development as a repetitive sequence of goal formulation, implementation, evaluation, and modification of a pictured end state based on what was learned or intended by the people involved48. Planned change is rapid and dramatic. It tends to result in a radical shift in ways of doing things, new goals, and a new structure49. Restructuring (downsizing an organization by eliminating the jobs of large numbers of managers and employees), and reengineering (deleting old processes and all unnecessary process details, and redesigning processes from scratch, leading to radical transformation) are two examples for the planned structural change.

Cognitive bias means a tendency to make irrational decisions about other people and situations. Cognitive biases are really common since they are produced by human nature. Habits, educational background, experience, business culture and similar components reflect cognitive bias of decision-maker in organizational decisions.

Advantages

Differentiates organization from the others.

Members’ organizational identification is easy.

Guides organizational behavior.

Creates stability throughout the organization. 

Disadvantages

Makes mergers & acquisition harder.

Only attracts the same type of people thus diminishes organizational diversity

Creates organizational inertia.

Decreases organization’s environmental adaptability potential.

Culture is an integrative pattern of the meaning-making process which people subconsciously use to understand the world surrounding them via the shared set of values and beliefs, language, symbols, and physical artifacts.

It is not an easy concept to comprehend and it cannot be understand by its surface meaning. It requires a deeper explanation to understand it fully. It has close connections with tangible dimensions such as beliefs, perspective and knowledge.

Culture is not a rational and analytical phenomenon; it is more of an integrative, subjective, and emotional phenomenon.

The more different the idea, the more autonomy the project team will require.

Technology is “the information necessary to achieve a certain production outcome from a particular means of combining or processing selected inputs which include production processes, intra-firm organizational structures, management techniques, and means of finance, marketing methods or any of its combination”

Subculture is defined as groups sharing overall cultural values of the society but diverges from these groups by holding different values brought by their lifestyles, values, and norms. Organizations reaching certain levels regarding size will generally have three subcultures namely operational, technical, and managerial.

But sometimes subcultures within the organization may marginalize due to several factors affecting them. In the last analysis, cultures are made up of people, and people are social beings. These marginalized cultures are called counterculture. People who are the member of counterculture have 100% opposite lifestyles, values, and norms relative to the organization and/ or society in which they are living and working in.

In 1983, the Minnesota Innovation Research Program (MIRP) initiated a longitudinal study of service, product, technology, and program innovation. MIRP researchers conceptualized innovations as more than the emergence of new ideas. Rather, the ideas must be developed, and activities such as supplying, manufacturing, marketing, and servicing must be established. Even such efforts are completed, the innovation may not be readily adopted, leading to an additional aspect of the process—its implementation. MIRP researchers also found that innovation is a complex process which is inherently uncertain and far from equilibrium. The correct answer is Choice D.

Process innovation is a company’s effort to refine and improve its current processes.

There are factors that affect the process of constructing organizational culture: Organzational history, founder and top management team, mission and vision statement, human capital, power relations and authority, communication styles, reward and discipline systems and organizational environment.

Human Capital is about the following:

Organization is made up of people. As we touched upon, top managers and founders have a substantial influence on organizational culture. In addition to these top figures, human resources employed by the organization also has an enduring effect on organizational culture. All participating organizational members interactively shape organizational culture, so it should be viewed as the fundamental aspect of the culture itself. Employees are bound to the organization with a labor contract, but contemporary organizations require one to add more than what is written in these contracts. Requirements of modern business life can only be fulfilled by employees who can develop organizational citizenship behavior. This situation leads us to another type of contract called psychological contract. To create strong ties with employees, organizations should focus on psychological contract. Typically, this type of bonds can only be created within strong organizational cultures.Organizations demand more, and in turn, employees request more. For example, today employees are looking for fun at work, flexible working hours, empowerment, slack time for innovation. Suitable organizational cultures can only fulfill these requests. So, all in all, culture is shaped by and can shape human side of organizations.