Most political systems include three main components. They are citizens, government, and nongovernmental organizations.

In democratic nations, citizens elect most or all of the government leaders. In other non-democratic nations, citizens do not elect their leadership, but they do often have a way to say how they feel about how their government is working.

A government is made up of many systems that work together to run the nation. Most nations have legislatures, a group of legislators or law-makers who write proposed laws and then debate their importance; executives who propose budgets and then run the day-today operations of the government, including enforcing the laws; and a judiciary branch that makes sure that laws are fair and enforced according to the original intention.

Politics as part of society also includes many other groups that try to change government policies and actions. These might be pressure groups, interest groups, individual businesses, and corporations.

The term "political party" means a group with a unified goal to fill political jobs and support particular ideas.

For most parties, there are three main goals: developing a party message (platform), getting members in government leadership, and running the government.

A party platform explains the party strategy about important issues.

To do this, parties train members for political offices at all levels of government. A second part of this effort is to help with campaigns (efforts) to get their members elected or placed. Parties help candidates by managing media relations, writing speeches, organizing rallies, and collecting information from voters.

There are two main types of parties: cadre and mass.

Cadre parties were the first modern political parties formed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Cadre parties are described as small organizations that are typically dominated by politically elite groups of activists with a co-opted leadership structure with limited control over the membership and comparatively week communication links. These types of parties are mostly funded by the wealthy. Generally, cadre parties only function for a limited time during election periods.

Mass parties, which started in the 20th century, are groups with thousands and sometimes millions of members.

A difference between mass parties and cadre parties is that mass parties try to appeal to a large number of people. Mass parties have a bureaucratic leadership and use advanced technology. Members usually fund mass parties.

The number of members in a political party is more important than the number of political parties in a country.

Studies show that membership in political parties is decreasing. This might mean that for the public at large, the importance of political parties is decreasing.

In democracies, a political party's main goal is to gain control of the government. Parties do this by helping its members to be elected. In non-democracies, a political party's role may be to take actions in an attempt to put their member in a leadership role.

There are generally two major types of democratic electoral systems for a section of a legislature (law making group), Proportional Representation (PR) and Single-member Plurality (SMP). But they only represent about 66% of the systems used in democratic nations. Another system is what is called a parallel electoral system.

Proportional Representation (PR) is the most common type of electoral system in democracies. Under PR, the person or party gets a share of the available offices based on the percentage of votes.

Bolivia, Germany, Hungary, New Zealand, Netherlands and Turkey are examples of countries with proportional representation.

The second most common type of electoral system used in democracies is single-member plurality (SMP). In SMP the candidate who gets the most votes wins the election.

Countries such as Egypt, Canada, Great Britain, the United States, and Yemen use a type of SMP system. Approximately 26% of the democracies use this type of system for their lower chamber.

  In parallel systems, voters elect the candidate and the party separately. This is done either with one ballot or two separate ballots.

Countries using parallel systems include Armenia, Japan, Korea, Philippines, and Ukraine.

Elections in non-democracies have a different purpose than elections in democracies. Elections in authoritarian regimes are often more about providing a way for the citizens to approve or reject ideas, even if the result of the vote is not going to change the decision of the leader. Elections are also a way to strengthen the image of the leader and to keep other possible leaders from trying to gain power.

Elections serve various functions. Elections provide a way for the citizens to choose the government leaders. Candidates have to clearly communicate their ideas about society so the electoral process also educates the citizens about social and political issues. Debates, rallies, and other political forums allow political candidates and political parties to explain their ideas about a variety of issues. The election process also provides a platform with the citizens to show their opinions on the issues. Elections are a part of the political process and let the citizens be a part of their government.

  Things that affect voter participation (voter turnout) include population size, population changes, demographics (like, age, income, race and ethnicity), political socialization, economic development, and even weather. Other issues that can affect voter turnout are the closeness of the political race, the political importance of the issues, money spent on the campaign by political parties, the candidate (personality, fame), and the number of parties running. The voter turnout can also be affected by other factors such as: if it is a proportional electoral system in which there are several types of offices at stake, if there are registration requirements, and if voting is compulsory.

Public opinion is the collection of individual opinions of social issues, government policies and politics.

Public opinion is usually measured through questions: Polls or Surveys.

The most common poll is the opinion poll. Answer: News media, research organizations, thinktanks, governments and non-profit organizations conduct these polls. Politicians also use opinion polls to see how the public feels about policies and social issues. Shortly before elections, candidates use public opinion polls to understand the popularity of candidates. Candidates also use opinion polls as a way to show their strength. Interest groups and political parties use public opinion polls to promote their causes.

The public opinion polling is based on the laws of probability. The laws of probability suggest that if everything is treated equally, any object among a group of objects has the same chance of being selected as any other object in the group.

Sampling is used because it would be too expensive and take too much time to survey the entire population.

The results of the survey from the sample population are called estimates because you are estimating, or guessing, what the results would be if you were able to survey the entire population.

the main way that people get information about political and social issues is the media. Therefore, the media has an important role in shaping public opinion. Studies have shown the more the media covers an issue the more important it seems to the individual.

How an issue is covered gives people ideas for how they should feel about the issue. This is known as framing. For example, if a story is written with a negative feel or the focus is on the problems of an issue, the public is more likely to have a negative feeling about the issue

How an issue is covered gives people ideas for how they should feel about the issue. This is known as framing. For example, if a story is written with a negative feel or the focus is on the problems of an issue, the public is more likely to have a negative feeling about the issue

Besides media, other influencers of public opinion include elites, political parties, interest groups, political figures, social and spiritual or religious institutions.

Pressure groups and political parties differ in their primary goals. Political parties' main goal is to ensure the election of their candidate and to control the government by their party representatives. Conversely, pressure groups tend to focus on social or political issues and attempt to influence various phases of public policy

Pressure groups are broken into four categories: promotional, sectional, insider, outsider.

Promotional groups are referred to as causal groups because they usually promote one specific cause. Unlike promotional groups, sectional groups refer to pressure groups that represent specific types of individuals. These are only open to members of one profession, organization or trade.

The difference between these two groups is the group's relationship with the government.

Insider pressure groups are those groups that have close links with the government and are heavily consulted during the policy-making process.

Organizations that might be categorized as outsider groups provide pressure on governments rather than working closely with them. Outsider groups are known to mount demonstrations, act as pickets, launch campaigns, disrupt government proceedings, vandalize property, and run media campaigns to counter government policies.

Generally, an interest group is an organization of people who share the same philosophies and attitudes.

Interest groups generally fall into two broad categories: institutional and membership.

 Institutional interest groups are organizations that have corporations as members and represent major businesses or industries.

Membership interest groups typically have individuals rather than corporations as members. membership interest groups typically have individuals rather than corporations as members.

The main goal of interest groups is to support public policy issues of interest to the members. Interest groups use lobbying, monetary and other types of contributions, education programs, as well as demonstrations, petitions, and letter writing campaigns to achieve their goals.

Cultural and historical factors that have shaped interest groups systems in Latin America include socioeconomic inequalities, elitist politics, a tradition of authoritarianism, a political culture of family and personal loyalties, and external influences.

In most democratic governments there are three distinct branches: the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judiciary branch. The legislative branch usually is the main arm of the government that establishes the laws of the land. The executive branch typically ensures that all of the laws are obeyed by overseeing the operation of the government. The executive branch is also usually the "face" of the nation, especially in foreign relations. The judiciary branch ensures that all laws are acceptable or constitutional.

Legislative bodies are usually either unicameral (meaning one body, assembly, chamber or group) or bicameral (meaning two bodies, assemblies, chambers or groups). In unicameral legislations, all of the members discuss, deliberate, and vote together as a single group (or chamber). In a bicameral legislature, each chamber will discuss, deliberate, and vote on laws separately.

Turkey has unicameral legislations.

Heads of government have different titles including premier, chancellor, president, and prime minister.

The primary goal of the head of government is to develop and support a relationship with the legislature to ensure that the government runs effectively.

Under the presidential system of government, each branch (legislative, executive, and judiciary) has its own separate domain and power. The executive branch runs the government after proposing a budget to the legislative branch for approval, and the legislative branch discusses and proposes bills that may become laws after presidential approval. This is known as the checks and balances system.

Judicial review refers to the power of the courts of a country to examine the actions of the legislative, executive, and administrative branches of the government and to determine whether such actions are consistent with the constitution.

In most democratic systems, judicial review is not a form of law making. But in France judicial review is actually a part of the law-making process. This is the case with the French Constitutional Counsel. The French Constitution gives the Constitutional Council the power to review legislation before the law is passed or implemented.

The legal systems of nearly all countries are generally modeled on five elements: civil law; common law; customary law; mixed or pluralistic law; and religious law

When defining bureaucracy in terms of its structural characteristics, political scientists most often use a variation of six fundamental characteristics:

1. A well-defined hierarchy of authority,

2. A partitioning of work based on specialization,

3. A structure of rules regarding the rights and responsibilities of the employee,

4. A structure of rules and procedures for providing services to citizens equally and fairly,

5. A focus on events or facts rather than personal attributes for interpersonal relationships,

6. Employment and promotion based on knowledge, skills and abilities. So bureaucracy is a system of rules, regulations and procedures that dictate how employees act and provide governmental services and support to people those services in an impartial, fair, and equitable manner.

  The important distinction between the bureaucracy and other segments of the government is that bureaucrats are supposed to be the "non-political" arm of the government who are responsible for ensuring that the laws and policies are carried out as intended and in a fair and equitable manner.

The head of government is ultimately responsible for overseeing the bureaucracy and can dictate how a department, agency, or ministry operates.

Political scientists have studied varying aspects of representation in governance generally and bureaucracies specifically. One interesting area of study is gender representation. Studies have found that though women tend to be well represented in government positions in general, they are under-represented in higherlevel positions.

Bureaucracies that look like the citizenry (i.e., varying races, ethnicities, socio-economic status, education level, gender, etc.) are more likely to incorporate a wider range of thoughts, ideas, and solutions to government processes and services that reflect the interests and wishes of the public. This is similar to the notion that elected officials, especially the legislative body, should consist of a wide range of people to ensure that all segments of the population are represented in the policy-making process. To achieve wider population representation, in some legislative systems officials are elected to represent different districts or sections of an area.

A representative bureaucracy increases the chance that a wider range of thoughts, interest, ideas, and desires will be considered while the government officials implement the laws and policies. A representative bureaucracy at the lower levels may also improve citizens' perceptions of how services are being provided in terms of effectiveness, equity, and fairness.

Well-established bureaucracies are highly structured organizations with technically skilled employees who have well-defined functional specializations.

These might be pressure groups, interest groups, individual businesses, and corporations.

The term “political party” means a group with a unified goal to fill political jobs and support particular ideas.

For most parties, there are three main goals: developing a party message (platform), getting
members in government leadership, and running the government.

There are two main types of parties: cadre and mass.

Cadre parties are described as small organizations that are typically dominated by politically elite groups of activists with a coopted leadership structure with limited control over the membership and comparatively week
communication links. These types of parties are mostly funded by the wealthy. A difference between mass
parties and cadre parties is that mass parties try to appeal to a large number of people. Mass parties
have a bureaucratic leadership and use advanced technology.

Proportional Representation (PR) is the most common type of electoral system in democracies.
PR is similar to SMP. Under PR, the person or party gets a share of the available offices based on the
percentage of votes.

In SMP the candidate who gets the most votes wins the election.

Elections in authoritarian regimes are often more about providing a way for the citizens to approve or reject ideas, even if the result of the vote is not going to change the decision of the leader. 

Public opinion is the collection of individual opinions of social issues, government policies
and politics.

The media, elites, political parties, interest groups, political figures, social and spiritual or religious institutions. 

Typically, pressure groups are broken into four categories: promotional, sectional, insider, outsider.

Promotional groups are also referred to as causal groups because they usually promote one
specific cause. Unlike promotional groups, sectional groups refer to pressure groups that represent specific types of individuals. These are only open to members of one profession, organization or trade.

Generally, an interest group is an organization of people who share
the same philosophies and attitudes.

Institutional interest groups are organizations that have corporations as members and represent
major businesses or industries. Interest groups that are categorized as membership interest groups
typically have individuals rather than corporations as members.
Membership interest groups can be further categorized based on whether membership is public or private. A typical membership interest group may focus on a single-issue, multiple-issues,
or it might be membership or profession focused.

The legislative branch usually is the main arm of the government that establishes the laws of
the land. The executive branch typically ensures that all of the laws are obeyed by overseeing the
operation of the government. The executive branch is also usually the “face” of the nation, especially
in foreign relations. The judiciary branch ensures that all laws are acceptable or constitutional.

The individuals who make up the legislative branch are usually elected. They are considered
representatives because they represent the people who voted them into the position. In
modern legislatures, the elected officials serve a predetermined length of time in the position
before they can get reelected. Legislative bodies are usually either unicameral
(meaning one body, assembly, chamber or group) or bicameral (meaning two bodies, assemblies,
chambers or groups).

Judicial review refers to the power of the courts of a country to examine the actions of the legislative, executive, and administrative branches of the government and to determine whether such actions are consistent with the constitution.

1.A well-defined hierarchy of authority,
2. A partitioning of work based on
specialization,

3. A structure of rules regarding the rights and
responsibilities of the employee,
4. A structure of rules and procedures for
providing services to citizens equally and
fairly,
5. A focus on events or facts rather than personal
attributes for interpersonal relationships,
6. Employment and promotion based on
knowledge, skills and abilities.

Bureaucrats are supposed to be the “nonpolitical” arm of the government who are responsible
for ensuring that the laws and policies are carried out as intended and in a fair and equitable manner.Bureaucracy suggests that constancy, order, neutrality, fairness and equality are possible through
good government. The bureaucracy is different from other branches of government, but it is dependent on them. The executive or head of government (such as a president or prime minister) usually appoints the
high-ranking officials in a bureaucracy. 

Representative bureaucracy posit that bureaucracies that look like the citizenry (i.e., varying races, ethnicities,
socio-economic status, education level, gender, etc.) are more likely to incorporate a wider range
of thoughts, ideas, and solutions to government processes and services that reflect the interests and
wishes of the public.