The Ottoman State was not a theocratic state.

The third model bears the name of ‘multiple beliefs’, and is seen in countries such as the Netherlands and Germany, where the state is in equal distance to all religions and helps them to coordinate their support to their communities. This is defined as ‘equality and freedom for all’.

Village Institutes were to create the enlightening/enlightened pioneer for rural people.

The 1971 Memorandum did not provide political stability in Turkey. On the contrary, it caused many political crises. The Nihat Erim government resigned in about nine months. President Cevdet Sunay gave Nihat Erim the task of establishing a new government. However, the life of this government was also about four months. Then, Sunay gave Suat Hayri Ürgüplü the duty to establish a new government. However, the president did not approve the list of the Council of Ministers presented by Ürgüplü. Ferit Melen was then assigned as the prime minister. So, in Turkey, a process in which politically neutral governments were at work. But these governments were actually acting under the influence of the soldiers. The soldiers have thought that politicians were applying “populist policies”. According to them, such policies would harm the principles of the Republic and cause “reactionism”.

The February 28 military memorandum created a big trauma in large segments of society. For example, thousands of girls were forced to leave their schools because they were veiling. Vocational high school students were exposed to discrimination through the coefficient system; so many students could not enter faculties for many years. A large number of people were judged and sent to prison with the accusation of their reactionary activities. Some people lost their jobs and professions. On February 28, the military did not make a usual coup. However, politicians were forced to act ithe direction of the army’s demands. They changed the elected government and intervened directly into politics without directly taking control of the country. For this reason, the February 28th Process was called the “postmodern coup”.The developments in the process of February 28 caused political instability in Turkey. The country was exposed to two major economic crises in 1999 and 2001. 

The reformation process in the Ottoman State first of all started in the military field as improvements in the armed forces were thought to have a positive influence on the state to regain its political power.

Turkish ezan practice was abandoned during Democrat Party Period.

The United States of America Constitution is the oldest written constitution in the World. It was adopted in 1787 followed by the 1791 French Constitution, the 1809 Sweden Constitution and the 1812 Spain Constitution (Kaynar, 2014, p. 291)The correct answer is B.

The reforms were initiated primarily on the military field since improvements in the armed forces were thought to have a positive influence on the state to regain its political power. However, when this expectation was proved to be wrong in some time, other measures in administrative, legal and economic areas were taken.

Military Corporatism vs. Supremacy of Parliament 1960-1983: In this era, socio-economic issues were reduced to technical problems, which could supposedly be solved by rational planning through increasing power of bureaucrats. IMF and the World Bank had also begun to promote import substitution development plans for developing world. So, corporatism, ISI and planned economy triangle was seen as perfect match for the time. Indeed, large industries, in collaboration with foreign capital, continued to benefit from the import-substitution industrialization (ISI) policies of the 1960s by producing durable consumer goods serving domestic demand. However, inter-bourgeoisie conflict and increased trade union activities and socialist movements created political instability and weakened the AP government. The urban unrest of the rising workers’ and students’ movements was the main excuse for the military intervention in March 1971. Throughout the 1970s, Turkey experienced a series of weak coalitions. Low industrial efficiency was the result of Turkish development planning, which emphasized high growth rates through a large allocation of investment to import-substituted basic industry and the direction and the use of administrative regulation rather than incentives to ensure the effective functioning of the market. Towards the end of 1960s, IMF and OECD pressed Turkey to replace protectionism with export promotion strategy in order to solve the growing foreign debt problem.

In the October 1961 elections, nearly 35 per cent of the votes went to the Justice Party (Adalet PartisiAP), which had inherited large sections of voters and local organizations of DP. The 1961 election results were inconclusive. Thus, a coalition government between CHP and AP was established, owing to the mild threat of military intervention. D is the right answer.

The constitution of 1924 can be regarded as a hard constitutional document. In order to enact a constitutional law, a legislative proposal had to be offered by one-third of the assembly and had to be adopted by two-thirds of the majority. There were some articles of the Constitution of 1924 that didn’t allow the Assembly to make changes. The supremacy of the constitution over ordinary laws was recognized as well and other ordinary laws were supposed to be compatible with the constitution articles. These features were a sign to regard the constitution of 1924 as a hard document. As Özbudun (2016, p. 32) points out, the constitution did not establish a constitutional court that would determine if the laws passed by the assembly were compatible with the constitution.

The first coup attempt in the Ottoman period was the Kuleli Incident, which happened in 1859. Some soldiers and civilians planned a coup in cooperation in order to dethrone Sultan Abdulmecid and replace him with Abdulaziz. However, the troops which were affiliated to the palace received the news of this coup attempt before it happened. Afterwards, those who attempted the coup were arrested and tried in Kuleli Quarters. The trial was referred to as Kuleli Incident because the trials took place in Kuleli Quarters.

The paradigm of secularization is defined in terms of three major developments in the process of modernization, which are differentiation, decline of religion, and privatization.

The minority government of AP, with a standby agreement with IMF, prepared the structural adjustment programs (SAP) known as ‘24 January measures’. The main policy recommendations included: Removing state control over interests and prices and increasing competition for state enterprises, avoiding the destabilization of the economy through making arrangements to cope with inflation and external debt accumulation, shifting from import substitution to an export promotion strategy and import liberalization, concentration of public investment on the energy and transportation infrastructure rather than manufacturing.

In 1937, the principle of secularism (laïcité) was put into the constitution.

The constitution of 1924 can be regarded as a hard constitutional document. In order to enact a constitutional law, a legislative proposal had to be offered by one-third of the assembly and had to be adopted by two-thirds of the majority. There were some articles of the Constitution of 1924 that didn’t allow the Assembly to make changes. The supremacy of the constitution over ordinary laws was recognized as well and other ordinary laws were supposed to be compatible with the constitution articles. All three statements are correct.

Islamism aimed at uniting the Muslims living in the Ottoman Empire. 

The Italian, German, and Soviet experiences provided an ideological backup to the etatist wing of CHP, which increasingly advocated more state intervention for rapid industrialization. ‘Rather than the state being the handmaiden of a growing private sector, it was now to seize the “commanding heights” of the economy and bend the private sector to its will’