Erzurum Congress was an assembly of Turkish Revolutionaries held from 23 July to 4 August 1919 in the city of Erzurum, in eastern Turkey, in accordance with the previously issued Amasya Circular. The congress united delegates from six eastern provinces (vilayet) of the Ottoman Empire, many parts of which were under Allied occupation at the time. The major resolutions of the Erzurum Congress:

i) The unity and integrity of the fatherland are in danger; the mother-land is undivided.

ii) By no means nobody will emigrate from the region; the minorities’ destructive and dividing deeds will not be permitted.

iii) Every kind of national struggle is going to be fulfil to protect the independence and integrity of the mother-land.

iv) Mandate and protection are not acceptable. 

Therefore, the correct option is B.

In its first phase, Turkish nationalism, like other nationalisms, has developed as language nationalism. Efforts to simplify Turkish language have taken place in this context. In addition, studies on Turkish race are also included in this framework. Pan-Turkism or Turanism, which is presented as a solution of saving the Ottoman Empire, advocates the unity of the Turkish communities in Central Asia under a single political framework. But the Republic rejects Turanism systematically and limits its own nationalism to Anatolia. This idea, which is trying to prove that Anatolia is a Turkish homeland, develops a new history thesis. According to this thesis, the Turks are 9,000 years old settled people of Anatolia. The Sumerian and Hittite civilizations belong to Turks; even at the base of European languages and civilization there are Turkish languages and ethnic groups. In the 1970s, the representative of nationalist ideology in the political sphere became Nationalist Action Party.

The team that published the Kadro Magazine to synthesize socialism with Kemalism : Vedat Nedim, Burhan Asaf, Yakup Kadri, Mehmet Şevki, Şevket Süreyya, İsmail Hüsrev.

The correct answer is B. 

The studies of political life in different societies have examined political totality as the analysis of political process and political evolution in a determined period of time, which would have to be resulted, as expected, in some form of democracy, thus attached to a teleological reading of the political in terms of a Western pattern; and an articulation of political concepts and values into a given political reality. Therefore it is possible to claim here that such a task has two dimensions one is based on the analytic, the other is on synthetic undertaking. In the first dimension, we have political institutions, transformations, processes, and values; political ideologies, concepts and visions in the second. Since conflicts, contradictions and struggles that emerge from the very nature of political affairs are the core of the political, therefore in the understanding of the political, in addition to conditional and actual problems and issues (the political level 1, the structure of politics), we are in the realm of almost an eternal strive for the better whether it is formulated in the form of a demand for equality, dignity, solidarity and justice (the political level 2, the aim of politics). Turkey as a country and society is not an exception to this determination. So we have to understand politics as it has been constructed, produced and reproduced in political imagination. There are certain limits to that imagination. And they come most from actual and historical factors. Every society is a society of its own history, in other words, every society is a product of its own history. With this unique “historical” touch, politics and its elements in every society have been overdetermined from the very beginning. Unless history is taken into consideration, politics would mean nothing but means and strategies which have been used in a game of power among states, individuals or classes in a vacuum. As can be understood from the information given, all the statements in the answer choices might be used in order to explicate that unless history is taken into consideration politics would mean nothing but means and strategies which have been used in a game of power among states, individuals or classes in a vacuum, so the correct answer is E.

Yusuf Akçura formulated Islamism, Nationalism, and Ottomanism as the three modern ideologies in the late-Ottoman Empire.

The administrative structure of the Ottoman State during its classic period, the administrators representing the ruler’s authority are located at the top layer of the stratification. These are soldiers, bureaucrats, and clergymen. The other major element of the stratification system consists of the rayah (reaya). The peasants, merchants, and artisans are the components that create this layer (İnalcık, 2009, p. 256). Within this stratification system, the soldiers are responsible for the protection of the land and undertake essential functions in the operation of the Ottoman economy. For example, Ottoman cavalry corps (sipahiler) are responsible for collecting soldiers in wartime and a certain amount of the products produced by the villagers in the name of tax and transferring them to the Center. Finally, the principal responsibility of the Ottoman administrative structure, which represented the authority of the sovereign, was to keep everyone’s position within the group and to accomplish the functions of the group. Hence, social mobility was kept to a minimum in this administrative structure. 

The correct answer is A. 

The socialist interpretation of this kind of nationalism has also been influential among the Turkish left-socialists. The father of this idea is Sultan Galiyev. Atilla İlhan voiced this idea in Turkey. We can also find traces of this understanding, which is also presented as a left Kemalism interpretation, in politicians, such as Bülent Ecevit and Deniz Baykal. Also unlike left Kemalism from some aspects, novelist Kemal Tahir is another important name of left nationalism.

The correct answer is A. 

In the first dimension, we have political institutions, transformations, processes, and values; political ideologies, concepts and visions in the second. The correct answer is I and II. Ideologies are included in the second dimension.

CKMP was transformed into an ideological Turkish nationalist party under the leadership of Alparslan Türkeş and took its place in the Assembly in 1969 under the name of the Nationalist Action Party (Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi-MHP)

Praetorian society refers to a society governed by military though there is not a martial law

Starting its adventure as a beylic, Ottoman reign became a powerful empire particularly after the reign of Mehmed the Conqueror.

After the year 1945, a time when USA domination of the world began to shape political affairs at a global scale, “political science” or “politics” has theoretically employed a paradigm, which took politics as a tool of governance to solve practical and technical problems, thus there politics is confined to a mere organon, and generally understood as a system in which political inputsare transformed into political outputs, thus paving the way for a political situation in an advanced capitalist society where citizens are conditioned as costumers economically, and as voters politically, leaving aside all cultural, historical and sociological elements that are embodied in society as conflicts and contradictions. As can be understood from the information given, the correct answer is D. The informaton related to the other years in the answer choices are as follows:

1871: Kulturkampf, (German: “culture struggle”), the bitter struggle (c. 1871–87) on the part of the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck to subject the Roman Catholic church to state controls.

1873: The term “Kulturkampf” came into use in 1873, when the scientist and Prussian liberal statesman Rudolf Virchow declared that the battle with the Roman Catholics was assuming “the character of a great struggle in the interest of humanity.

1932: The People’s Houses, Halk Evleri, were established in 1931/32.

1950: The relative transition to parliamentary democracy in 1950 opened the door for other ideological inclinations, such as socialism and liberalism, which both had a relatively weak tradition in Turkey.

Three parties were allowed to participate in the 1983 elections. These were the Nationalist Democracy Party (Milliyetçi Demokrasi Partisi MDP) led by Retired General Turgut Sunalp, The Populist Party (Halkçı Parti-HP) led by Necdet Calp, who also served as principal clerk to İnonü, and the Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi-ANAP) led by Turgut Özal, who served as the minister responsible for the economy in the post-coup government.

Bayar, Menderes, Koraltan, and Köprülü also declared that they established a new opposition party called Democrat Party (Demokrat Parti-DP).

The correct answer is D. 

In 1930, there was a second attempt to adopt a multi-party democracy through the foundation of another opposition party. Nevertheless, the opposition party was not established in its own dynamics. At the time, Atatürk requested that Fethi Bey (former Prime Minister), who was the Paris embassy, establish an opposition party with a liberal program. Atatürk requested from his sister Makbule Hanım and some CHP deputies that they register as members of the new party. Atatürk promised the Liberal Republican Party (Serbest Cumhuriyet Fırkası-SCF) founders that he would be impartial against both parties as the President of the Republic.Hence, Fethi Bey established the party and a small number of deputies, most of whom were very close to Atatürk, registered in the new party. One of the founders of the party, like Fethi Bey, was Ahmet Ağaoğlu, who was recognized with his liberal views. Under the influence of these two founders, SCF adopted a liberal economic program, different from CHP’s approach that followed the statist policies. SCF produced a significant impact in a short time. A large number of citizens from different areas applied to the party for becoming a member.

The correct answer is C. 

The currents of thought that emerged in the 19th century in the Ottoman Empire are a product of these historical conditions. These thoughts expressed by the Ottoman intellectuals are basically prescriptions offered to get rid of these bad conditions. In other words, advocated ideas were being designed and implemented to save the Empire, the state. The seeds of many political movements and ideologies that will arise in the Republic of Turkey were laid in this period. In this context, the currents of thought such as Ottomanism, Panislamism, Turkism, Turanism were advocated to return the empire to its former strong days and to fend off existing threats. The common ideal of these currents of thought is to ensure unity of the state. In short, these currents do not have a sociological basis that comes from the social background; political projects designed by statesmen and intellectuals. For the empires, such as the Ottoman Empire, the nationalism movement which had strengthened and spread in the 19th century had serious consequences.

The correct answer is D.